Readers are frequently exposed to background speech while reading, which slows reading speed and reduces comprehension accuracy-a phenomenon known as the irrelevant speech effect (ISE). The Semantic Interference Hypothesis proposes that only intelligible speech disrupts reading, whereas the Phonological Interference Hypothesis predicts that both intelligible and unintelligible speech cause disruption. However, empirical findings have not provided unequivocal support for either account. The present study addressed this issue by using a three-level meta-analysis. After a systematic search and screening, 30 studies were included, yielding 606 effect sizes. The results showed that, compared to the silence condition, intelligible speech slowed down the whole reading processing and prolonged lexical processing. Unintelligible speech also slowed down reading and affected post-lexical stages of lexical processing, as reflected in longer go-past time and total fixation duration. Importantly, intelligible speech exerted a stronger disruptive effect than unintelligible speech, by increasing reading time and delaying lexical processing across all stages. These results suggest that both intelligible and unintelligible speech interfere with reading, but intelligible speech causes greater disruption than unintelligible speech. The Phonological and the Semantic Interference Hypotheses only provide partial accounts for these findings, whereas the Process Interference Hypothesis offers a more comprehensive explanation.

Volatile, unpredictable environments often evoke experiences of anxiety and uncontrollability. Previous research has shown that both high trait anxiety and a perceived lack of control can negatively affect the efficiency of attentional control. In the present research, we examined a novel hypothesis: that anxiety and uncontrollability impact the learning of control allocation in a context-dependent way. We assumed that highly anxious individuals or those who experience uncontrollability would exhibit reduced attentional control because incidental learning from contextual cues is altered. In Experiment 1, we investigated how dispositional differences in anxiety relate to incidental learning from the task context, indexed by the context-specific proportion congruency (CSPC) effect. Participants scoring high (vs. low) in trait anxiety did not differ in the magnitude of the CSPC effect during the initial learning phase. However, once the association was acquired, anxious participants showed difficulties in flexibly modifying it based on new contextual information indicating that the association between proportion congruency and the context was reversed. In Experiment 2, we examined the effect of induced uncontrollability on subsequent incidental learning from contextual cues. We observed an absence of the CSPC effect during the learning phase for participants who had previously been exposed to uncontrollability. We discuss the implications of these findings for theories concerning how anxiety and a lack of control influence flexible learning about when to allocate more or less attentional control based on contextual cues.

This study aimed to examine the reciprocal associations between socioeconomic status (SES) and cognitive function by disentangling between-person and within-person effects, and further examined potential heterogeneity across six specific subgroups: age, gender, residence, ever smoking, ever drinking, night sleep duration, and depressive symptoms. The data analyzed were drawn from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) during 2011-2018. Cognitive function was assessed by intelligence and episodic memory. SES was operationalized using annual per-capita household expenditure, occupation, education level, and health insurance. Adjusted random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) and multiple group RI-CLPMs were used to determine the reciprocal relationship between cognitive function and SES. Among 9,322 participants, at the between-person level, middle-aged and older adults showed positive association between SES and cognitive function over an eight-year period after adjusting covariates (β = 0.545, P < 0.001). At the within-person level, SES and cognitive function exhibited reciprocal positive cross-lagged effects across wave 2 to 4 (β = 0.032-0.063, P < 0.050). Using multi-group RI-CLPMs, we identified differences in the longitudinal effect of SES on cognitive function, particularly when comparing groups based on the residence and depressive symptoms (P < 0.050). An increase in individual socioeconomic status was a positive predictor of cognitive function. Likewise, improvements in cognitive function were found to positively predict short-term gains in socioeconomic status. These findings suggest that tailored interventions should be developed to prevent cognitive aging, taking into account the heterogeneity of different population.

Evaluative conditioning (EC) is a mechanism through which attitudes toward neutral stimuli can be shaped by pairing them with positive or negative cues. Despite growing evidence for its role in attitude formation, little is known about whether EC can effectively modify body-related evaluations and how individual dispositions may moderate these effects. The present study examined whether neutral geometric figures (CS) would become more positive in valence and liking when paired with body images differing in weight status (average-weight vs. obese). A total of N = 146 participants completed baseline ratings of neutral CS, underwent an EC task pairing CS with average-weight or obese body images, and provided post-conditioning evaluations along with measures of self-esteem and body, eating and exercise-related social comparison (BEECOM). Results showed that CS paired with average-weight bodies increased significantly in both valence and liking, whereas obese-paired CS showed no significant change. Critically, social comparison tendency moderated overall responsiveness to conditioning: participants low in BEECOM showed significant increases in liking across conditions, whereas high-BEECOM participants showed no change. Neither variable moderated the specific differential conditioning effect between pairing conditions. Self-esteem did not moderate conditioning effects. Exploratory analyses revealed no evidence that conditioning altered perceptual judgments of stimulus size. Findings highlight the importance of individual differences in social comparison as determinants of conditioning responsiveness in the body image domain.

We identify a previously unreported phenomenon where certain individuals show spontaneous increases in parietal-occipital upper alpha power before and after their first exposure to a mental rotation task. This enhancement likely reflects efficient cortical inhibition and selective neural tuning within visuospatial networks-mechanisms comparable to those engaged during neurofeedback-based cognitive training. Previous studies show that alpha oscillations, associated with attention, working memory, and mental rotation, can be consistently enhanced using neurofeedback. In our recent research, we found that the neurofeedback group significantly increased upper alpha amplitude and improved mental rotation speed compared to a control group. Surprisingly, some individuals in the control group exhibited increased upper alpha intensity both before and during the mental rotation task, without external conditioning. To examine this phenomenon, we conducted a follow-up study with 45 participants. First, we recorded their EEG activity, then they completed a mental rotation task. After finishing the task, participants rested for about 30 min, followed by another EEG recording before they undertook the mental rotation task again. The aim was to focus on the phenomenon where individuals exhibit spontaneous and task-related upper alpha power increases, and to examine whether their mental rotation performance differs from that of individuals without natural alpha elevation. Findings from this study are the first to show that both spontaneous and task-induced increases in upper alpha oscillations correlate with enhanced mental rotation, suggesting a unique and inherent mental mechanism allowing specific individuals to excel compared to their counterparts who lack this capacity. The paper examines potential mechanisms underlying spontaneous and task-related upper alpha elevation, providing crucial insights for refining strategies that aim to enhance spatial skills. Our results suggest intrinsic neurophysiological predispositions supporting superior spatial processing and highlight spontaneous alpha modulation as a potential biomarker of individual differences in visuo-cognitive efficiency.

Numbers and time are closely linked to space. Two key effects illustrate this: the SNARC effect, associating smaller numbers with the left visual field and larger ones with the right, and the STEARC effect, linking the past to the left and the future to the right visual fields. This study examined whether time influences visual-spatial attention and memory by affecting attention shifts toward relevant visual fields and facilitating memory retrieval. To investigate this, we employed four experimental tasks: the SNARC task, the STEARC task, the visual-spatial attention task, and the visual-spatial memory task. In the SNARC task, participants pressed a key to determine whether the presented numbers were smaller or larger than 5. In the STEARC task, they assessed whether temporal words referred to the past or future. The SNARC and STEARC tasks confirmed number-space and time-space interactions, a necessary step before further investigation. During the visual-spatial attention task, participants responded to images presented in the left or right visual field following temporal reference words. We employed a single-key procedure for responses to eliminate any facilitation effects from response keys. In the visual-spatial memory task, participants indicated whether they had seen the images displayed previously. Our findings confirm the presence of the SNARC and STEARC effects. However, no detectable effect of temporal reference on visual-spatial attention was observed under the current task conditions. Similarly, no reliable effect was found in the visual-spatial memory task. Taken together, these findings suggest that temporal-spatial mappings may not be robustly observed in visual attention tasks that do not involve explicit left-right responses.

The Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) is widely used to assess English-as-a-second-language (ESL) students' metacognitive regulation of reading across three strategy dimensions (Global, Problem-Solving, Support), yet this three-factor structure has rarely undergone confirmatory validation. This study introduces HiLoLev, a theory-driven two-factor measurement reconceptualisation that distinguishes higher-level integrative/monitoring strategies from lower-level decoding/support strategies. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on data from 554 Swedish upper-secondary ESL students, legacy three-factor specifications (oblique, higher-order) were contrasted with the proposed theory-driven HiLoLev model based on SORS items. The original structures showed poor fit with high interfactor correlations and substantial cross-loadings; by contrast, an 11-item HiLoLev model fit well (RMSEA = 0.051, SRMR = 0.045) and offered clearer interpretability. While the full SORS remains pedagogically useful, its subscales should not be assumed to represent stable latent constructs for inferential analyses. For research applications (e.g., regression models, mediation analyses, or group comparisons), confirm the structure in-sample via CFA or consider using the 11-item HiLoLev model as a compact, cognitively grounded latent specification of SORS items.

When individuals encounter familiar situations, they may apply behaviors from past experiences. This could be due to recognizing similarities between the situations or inferring characteristics from the past to the present, leading to similar responses. Recognition becomes more cautious in negative contexts, showing increased discrimination and ability to discern differences, known as the "negative affective effect of recognition". Conversely, generalized inference in negative situations tends to overgeneralize past attributes to current contexts, termed the "negative affective effect of inference". This study examines how recognition and inference interact under different affective states and their impact on cognitive processing. It employed an symmetrical design with affective contexts (positive, neutral, negative) to evaluate performance in two task sequences: inference-recognition and recognition-inference, using Signal Detection Theory under varying time pressures. The findings reveal that the sequence of cognitive tasks influences the magnitude of negative affective effects in recognition and inference, particularly indicating a complex, bidirectional interaction between these processes.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, like ChatGPT, are now widely integrated into a plethora of contexts. Although they present potential benefits like increased efficiency and reduced lower-level cognitive load, they are accompanied by serious risks such as over reliance and impacted independent critical reasoning. Research on how critical thinking and cognitive offloading interact with AI use is limited. Furthermore, research on attitudes towards AI and how they may influence how people offload cognition and engage in critical thinking is further understudied. Our mixed-methods study aims to reduce this gap. Initially, 124 participants were considered for the study. After filtering out the outliers, 120 young adults (AI group n = 57, Manual group n = 63) participated, with a subsample of 54 who were thematically analysed. Our experimental design incorporated a logical fallacies identification task (with/without ChatGPT) and three quantitative questionnaires: Artificial Intelligence Attitude Scale, Critical Thinking Rubric and Mental Effort Rating Scale. Nonparametric analyses (Kruskal-Wallis and Spearman's rho) revealed that the AI group were able to attain higher correct responses (H = 7.044, p < .01). Additionally, they reported significantly lower mental effort (H = 27.434, p < .01) for the experimental task. Qualitative trends saw high independent reasoning, verification, and metacognitive monitoring in manual participants. Conversely, a mix of complete delegation and selective use/strategic engagement was observed under the AI condition. Overall, we conclude that although AI improves task accuracy and lowers mental effort, it does not necessarily save time or uniformly enhance or reduce critical thinking. Moreover, we suggest that a user's approach to AI (delegation vs. strategic engagement) determines whether it acts as a replacement or scaffold. We highlight the need for intentional, reflective use of AI in educational contexts.

Language assessment tools have traditionally used black-and-white line drawings. However, recent research highlights color as a key feature to distinguish visually similar concepts. Emojis are simplified and conventionalized visual representations that integrate salient visual-perceptual attributes, such as shape and color, into the representation of concepts. This study aimed to compare semantic and lexical access to living (LTs) and non-living things (NLTs) across black-and-white drawings, colored drawings, and emojis. Ninety healthy adults completed a computerized oral-naming task including 64 stimuli (32 living and 32 non-living items) presented in one of the three visual formats. Accuracy was analyzed using a generalized linear mixed-effects model (GLMM), and reaction times were analyzed using a linear mixed-effects model (LMM). Accuracy analyses revealed a main effect of semantic domain, with higher accuracy for the NLTs domain, and a significant format and domain interaction, but no main effect of format was identified. The disadvantage in naming LTs was most evident for black-and-white drawings and was reduced for colored drawings and emojis. Reaction time analyses showed main effects of domain and format as well as a significant interaction, with slower naming of LTs in black-and-white format. Overall, the results suggest that performance across visual formats was broadly similar when considered globally, but that differences emerged when semantic domain was taken into account. LTs were particularly affected by the absence of color. This study highlights the potential of emojis as an experimental visual format and suggests that their role in oral naming and language assessment should be further examined.

Previous studies have shown that social cues, such as gaze direction, typically direct space-based attention rather than object-based attention in the two-rectangle paradigm. However, the inherent connection between eye gaze and facial expressions leaves unresolved questions about whether and how facial expressions influence gaze-driven selective attention. The present study aimed to explore the effects of facial expressions on both space- and object-based attention triggered by gaze cues. We used a modified two-rectangle paradigm incorporating gaze information from negative, neutral, and positive facial expressions while manipulating cue-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) at 150 ms, 300 ms, and 600 ms. The results revealed that facial expressions did not modulate space-based attention; however, distinct patterns emerged for object-based attention. Specifically, negative facial expressions did not induce object-based attention, while positive facial expressions produced a stronger object-based attentional effect compared to neutral expressions at 150 ms and 300 ms SOA conditions. These findings suggest that facial expressions in gaze cues elicit object-based attention, with positive expressions guiding attention to the entire object. This study provides new empirical evidence for investigating of social cognition and selective attention.

This study utilizes the metaphor aptness rating task (how appropriate a metaphor was in the given context) and the feature arrangement task (participants arrange each of the presented features so that words with similar meanings are close together) to investigate the relationships between the semantic distances of topic (e.g., "an anxiety"), vehicle (e.g., "a dense fog"), features (e.g., "dark," "isn't clear," and "unclear"), and metaphor aptness (e.g., "an anxiety is a dense fog"). The results revealed that the number of topic-and-vehicle applicable features affected the metaphor aptness ratings. Furthermore, the results implied that the closer the semantic distances between features, the higher the metaphor aptness rating. These results suggest that not only the number of topic-and-vehicle applicable features but also the semantic integration and coherence among features play an important role in metaphor aptness. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that the feature arrangement task provides a non-rating-based method for evaluating participants' similarity judgments at the feature level, offering a complementary approach to traditional rating-based measures of metaphor processing.

Responsible forgetting refers to an adaptive process whereby individuals intentionally forget information that does not need to be remembered. This study examined whether responsible forgetting is influenced by the forgetfulness of a partner in collaborative recall. Participants imagined preparing for a camping trip with a hypothetical friend. Each camping item was paired with a cue (You or Friend) indicating whether the participant or friend was responsible for remembering it. Participants in the forgetful condition were told that their friend was forgetful, whereas no information was provided about the friend in the control condition. Results demonstrated that the interaction effect between partner unreliability and memory-responsibility cue on recall performance was statistically significant (OR = 0.39, 95% CI [0.17, 0.90]). Participants in the forgetful condition recalled more friend-assigned items than those in the control condition. These findings indicate that responsible forgetting is flexibly moderated depending on the situation, such as a partner's forgetfulness.

Rather than viewing dual-task interference solely as a fixed structural limitation, recent strategic models suggest that it should be dynamically managed through active goal-protection strategies, such as task shielding. This study investigated how strategic control recruitment interacts with overall cognitive load and explicit task-priority instructions in asymmetric task environments. Twenty-four healthy adults performed two distinct paradigms: a low cognitive load paradigm (simple reaction task + go/no-go task) and a high cognitive load paradigm (simple arrow task + flanker arrow task), each composed of low- and high-difficulty components. The task priority was manipulated toward the lower-difficulty component, the higher-difficulty component, or equally between the two. Instructional compliance was objectively verified through a validation analysis of reaction times in 1-second lead time trials. The results revealed that, in the high cognitive load paradigm, explicit priority instructions significantly redistributed dual-task interference. Prioritizing one task component successfully reduces its performance decrement at the expense of the non-prioritized task. Conversely, the low-cognitive-load paradigm exhibited no significant differences in dual-task interference across priority conditions. These findings suggest that the implementation of strategic control, such as "task shielding," is affected by cognitive load. Although many dual task combinations exist, task shielding and task priority shifts may emerge in paradigms that impose a sufficiently high cognitive load to necessitate proactive goal protection.

Spatial-numerical associations (SNAs), such as the SNARC effect, reflect the tendency to associate smaller numbers with the left side of space and larger numbers with the right. While robust in hand-based tasks, SNAs are flexible and influenced by sensorimotor context. This study examined how static hand posture shapes the SNARC effect in a foot-response paradigm by providing task-irrelevant postural cues, thereby isolating the influence of postural configuration from motor execution. Grounded in embodied cognition, we hypothesized that passive visual and proprioceptive cues would bias spatial-numerical mappings. These cues were provided by task-irrelevant hand postures. Participants (N = 103) completed a magnitude classification task using left and right foot pedals to indicate whether digits (1-4, 6-9) were smaller or larger than 5. Hand posture was manipulated between subjects: fingers interlaced (control), palms down, or palms up. The results revealed significant SNARC effects in the palms-down and palms-up conditions, but not in the control condition, while numerical distance effects were observed across all conditions. These findings indicate that static bodily configurations, even when unrelated to the response effector, can influence SNAs. The results support embodied accounts of numerical cognition, demonstrate that current sensorimotor states influence number-space mappings, and show the methodological utility of foot-based paradigms in disentangling posture effects from response modality.