Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a severe neurological condition often leading to enduring motor, sensory, and autonomic dysfunction. Its pathophysiology involves primary mechanical damage followed by secondary injury processes including axonal disruption, demyelination, excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, vascular dysfunction, and cell death. Effective treatments that restore neurological function remain scarce. Exosomes (Exos) are nanoscale extracellular vesicles that mediate intercellular communication. Evidence indicates that Exos derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), neural stem cells (NSCs), and other progenitor populations produce therapeutic effects in SCI models. These effects are mediated through modulation of neuroinflammation, inhibition of apoptosis, preservation of vascular integrity, facilitation of local axonal sprouting and adaptive plasticity within spared neural tissue, and promotion of remyelination. Compared with cell-based therapies, Exos offer lower immunogenicity, reduced tumorigenic potential, and improved stability. Nevertheless, clinical translation faces obstacles including Exos heterogeneity, low yield, limited targeting specificity, and lack of standardized isolation and storage protocols. Emerging approaches such as Exos engineering, artificial Exos, and gene delivery systems are under investigation. This review summarizes SCI pathology and evaluates the therapeutic potential, limitations, and future directions of Exos-based interventions. Importantly, existing data suggest that Exos predominantly influence the post-injury microenvironment and enhance adaptive plasticity rather than promoting true long-distance axonal regeneration. This distinction requires rigorous validation in future studies.

Repairing large bone defects is still not an easy task and is considered an important challenge in regenerative medicine and maxillofacial surgery. The methods that currently exist each have their own limitations. Bone grafting from the patient's own body is known as the best method, but it is not always possible. This is because the donor site may get damaged, the amount of bone that can be taken is limited, and the surgery itself is complicated. In recent years, stem cells that are isolated from dental tissues have received a lot of attention. These cells proliferate quickly, have the ability to turn into different types of cells, and can even modulate immune responses. Because of this, they are considered a good option for bone regeneration. Alongside the use of stem cells, plant‑derived bioactive compounds have also become important. These compounds are natural, biocompatible, and can influence major cellular pathways that play roles in bone formation. This article discusses the simultaneous use of plant compounds and growth factors to enhance the bone‑forming ability of dental stem cells. Compounds such as flavonoids, polyphenols, and terpenoids can activate key signaling pathways like Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP), Wingless-related integration site /Beta-catenin (Wnt/β‑catenin), Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK), and Phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Protein Kinase B (Akt) (PI3K/Akt). This activation improves the bone‑formation process and also reduces inflammation and oxidative stress. When these plant compounds are used together with growth factors, their effect becomes stronger. Growth factors such as BMP, IGF, and FGF play important roles in regulating cell growth and differentiation, and combining them with plant compounds leads to better cellular responses. In this way, there is no longer a need to use high doses of growth factors. Generally, the simultaneous use of plant compounds and growth factors can be a promising and practical method for the future of bone tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Multiple Myeloma (MM) is a difficult-to-treat plasma-cell malignancy with heterogeneous pathogenesis and a poor prognosis. Given the limitations of existing treatments, developing approaches that improve efficacy and safety and ultimately achieve long-term remission or even a cure for MM is crucial. The high expression of B-Cell Maturation Antigen (BCMA) on malignant Plasma Cells (PCs) makes BCMA an important therapeutic target in MM. BCMA-targeted therapies have produced major advances in the treatment of MM. Here, we summarize conventional regimens and their limitations and examine how restricted cell sources, treatment resistance, and toxicity affect therapeutic outcomes. To address these limitations, MM treatment has entered an era of targeted therapy and immunotherapy; even though CAR-T therapy can induce deep and durable remissions, there are still unmet clinical needs. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-based therapies are expected to provide more effective treatment options for MM patients through strategies such as large-scale production of off-the-shelf engineered immune cells and combined therapy.

Diabetic wound healing remains one of the most significant clinical challenges for surgeons and endocrinologists, given that impaired immune regulation and blocked local tissue repair universally occur in diabetic wound microenvironments. M2 macrophages and exosomes derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSC-Exos) have emerged as promising therapeutic candidates, owing to their core functions in immune modulation and tissue regeneration. In this review, we systematically elaborate the immunomodulatory properties and polarization mechanisms of M2 macrophages in diabetic wounds, with an emphasis on their capacity to relieve chronic inflammation and facilitate tissue repair. We further summarize the biological characteristics of MSC-Exos and clarify the molecular mechanisms by which these vesicles accelerate wound healing and Extracellular Matrix (ECM) remodeling. More importantly, we focus on the bidirectional synergistic crosstalk between M2 macrophages and MSC-Exos in diabetic wound microenvironments, and highlight their great therapeutic potential for refractory diabetic wounds. Combined with the latest preclinical progress and translational research, we analyze the practical application value of M2 macrophages and MSCExos in diabetic wound management. This review integrates current basic research and preclinical data, aims to lay a solid theoretical basis for targeted intervention in diabetic wounds, and proposes novel combined therapeutic strategies to improve wound healing efficacy.

An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a serious vascular disease characterized by progressive dilation of the abdominal aorta, resulting in an increased risk of rupture. AAA develops through multiple pathogenic mechanisms, including chronic inflammation, extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, oxidative stress, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) apoptosis. Surgical intervention is the primary treatment for AAA; however, no effective pharmacological therapies are currently available to halt or reverse disease progression. This review evaluates the therapeutic potential of multipotent mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) for AAA, with particular emphasis on their immunomodulatory and regenerative properties. Preclinical studies suggest that MSCs can attenuate AAA progression in animal models by modulating the inflammatory microenvironment, reducing matrix metalloproteinase activity, and promoting tissue repair. In addition, interactions between MSCs and various immune cells decrease inflammatory responses, thereby positively impacting the structure of the aortic wall. Collectively, the available evidence highlights the broad therapeutic potential of MSCs in modulating key molecular and cellular pathways involved in AAA progression. Given their ability to modulate the immune system and promote vascular regeneration, MSCs may have significant potential for developing disease-modifying therapies for AAA. By targeting key pathogenic processes involved in AAA progression, MSCs offer the potential to complement existing surgical management and address mechanisms that are not targeted by current therapies. However, additional well-designed laboratory-based and clinical studies are needed to optimize MSC-based therapeutic strategies and to establish their long-term efficacy and safety before clinical translation.