Reflective Functioning (RF) is the capacity to understand oneself and others in terms of mental states. It is central to intra- and interpersonal functioning, as impairments in RF are associated with psychopathology, and especially borderline personality disorder (BPD). The Reflective Functioning Scale (RFS), the gold-standard measure of RF, requires the identification of qualitative markers, but their specific contribution to the global score and whether the prevalence of these markers differs among proxies of clinical samples has rarely been examined. Participants who met the criteria for BPD (n = 51), other psychiatric disorders (n = 49), or healthy controls (n = 51) were interviewed for RF using the Brief Reflective Functioning Interview, which was coded with the RFS. Positive markers were stronger predictors of RF scores than negative ones, though both uniquely contributed to the prediction of RF. Qualitative categories did not predict the global RF scores beyond the prediction by marker valence. Groups differed in marker prevalence, with BPD displaying higher rates of distorted, self-serving markers of RF. Findings suggest that qualitative markers of RF add unique insight into mentalizing, informing theoretical and clinical endeavors, but that the current set of markers may be redundant and requires reconsideration.

The Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) trait Disconstraint is a personality dimension associated with behavioral control. Conceptualizations of this construct posit under-controlled, antisocial personality and over-controlled, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) features to manifest at its high and low poles, respectively. Robust empirical support has been reported for the posited high-end manifestations of this trait, as measured across versions of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) by the Disconstraint (DISC) scale. Empirical findings related to low-end manifestations of DISC scores have been inconsistent across studies that have relied on broadband OCPD-related measures. The current study examined associations between MMPI-3 DISC scores and narrowband OCPD-related constructs measured by the Five-Factor Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (FFOCI) in a sample of 300 university students (125 men, 167 women, 8 another gender; aged 18-53 years [M = 19.94, SD = 4.40]). Results of zero-order correlation and locally weighted regression smoothing (LWRS) analyses indicated that several OCPD features are associated with low MMPI-3 DISC scores (but not all). Risk aversion, ruminative deliberation, and punctiliousness emerged as the primary relevant (negative) correlates, with perfectionism, workaholism, and doggedness yielding somewhat weaker associations with low DISC scores. Theoretical and practical implications pertaining to the Disconstraint construct and MMPI-3 DISC scale are discussed.

Curiosity in early childhood is associated with exploration, learning, and cognitive growth, yet little is known about how trait curiosity can be reliably assessed in preschoolers. This paper reports the development and validation of a caregiver-report measure designed to assess curiosity in children aged 2-5 years across three cultural contexts: the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Germany. Pursuing three objectives, we (1) generated 41 age-appropriate items by adapting and extending the Infant and Toddler Curiosity Questionnaire (ITCQ; Altmann et al., 2025a), first in English, followed by Dutch and German translations; (2) examined the factor structure in each country independently (sample sizes: UK = 398; NL = 330; DE = 540), discarded poorly fitting items, and integrated the results to produce a single, 25-item questionnaire comprising three subscales (Novelty, Investigative, and Interactive Curiosity); and (3) evaluated the reliability and validity of the final instrument within each national sample to assess its performance across cultural contexts. Psychometric analyses indicated strong internal consistency, coherent relations with other validated measures, and evidence of cross-cultural applicability. The resulting questionnaire, a direct continuation of the previously developed infant version, enables systematic assessment of young children's curiosity as a multidimensional construct observable in everyday life.

This study investigates psychological change in individuals with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) using the MMPI-2-RF within the context of a multicenter randomized controlled trial (RCT), as part of the BOOTS project. A sample of 81 participants completed pretreatment and follow-up MMPI-2-RF (36 months later) and satisfied the standard MMPI-2-RF validity criteria. Change versus stability was examined in terms of mean levels as well as individual relative rankings over time, and reliable change indices. In general, moderate to large mean effect-sizes were observed across the hierarchy of the MMPI-2-RF scales, which were quite consistent in pattern with the recent BOOTS outcome paper, albeit with smaller effect-sizes. In terms of rank order stability and proportion attaining reliable change, generally more patients shifted position on internalizing scales than on externalizing scales, but this may in part be an artifact of more historical items on the latter. Although the present study is specific to individuals meeting criteria for BPD, we argue that inspection of the MMPI-2-RF pattern of change may have more broad clinical utility in profiling change in psychopathology over time or treatment.

Trauma is highly prevalent among women involved in the criminal justice system, many of whom experience posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Accurately diagnosing PTSD can be challenging for clinicians given its overlapping features and frequent co-occurrence with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and dissociative disorders. The present study examined associations between MMPI-3 scales and external measures of BPD, PTSD, and dissociation in a sample of 262 incarcerated women housed at a Midwestern state prison. Criterion measures included the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS), McLean Screening Instrument for Borderline Personality Disorder (MSI-BPD), Personality Disorder Severity ICD-11 (PDS-ICD-11), PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) with Criterion A, Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5), and Dissociative Subtype of PTSD Scale (DSPS). As anticipated, measures of BPD, PTSD, and dissociation demonstrated overlapping patterns of associations with several MMPI-3 scales, particularly Emotional/Internalizing Dysfunction (EID), Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7), Aberrant Experiences (RC8), Cognitive Complaints (COG), Suicidal/Death Ideation (SUI), and Anxiety-Related Experiences (ARX). These findings provide further support for the utility of the MMPI-3 in assessing clinically relevant features associated with BPD, PTSD, and dissociation. More broadly, they highlight the importance of careful differential diagnosis and the use of trauma-informed approaches to assessment and treatment among incarcerated women.

Environmental sensitivity (referred to as trait sensitivity)-the capacity to perceive and process both supportive and adverse environmental experiences-may influence adolescent development, yet evidence in adolescence is scarce compared with that in childhood. We analyzed adolescent self-reports and maternal ratings from 2,375 Japanese adolescents across three studies. In Studies 1-2, the 21-item Highly Sensitive Child scale showed a bifactor structure (general sensitivity plus Ease of Excitation-Low Sensory Threshold and Aesthetic Sensitivity), with good internal consistency and moderate test-retest reliability; trait sensitivity correlated positively with negative emotionality, behavioral inhibition, neuroticism, and openness. The general sensitivity factor accounted for approximately half of the variance in the total score. In Study 3 adolescents were followed across three waves, testing interactions between trait sensitivity and environmental factors (i.e., parent and peer relationships). No significant interactions were detected; rather, trait sensitivity and environmental factors showed additive associations with developmental outcomes. Trait sensitivity predicted higher internalizing problems and greater prosocial behavior. In summary, the psychometric properties of the HSC-J21 were consistent with those of the original version developed by Weyn et al.

The HEXACO-60 is a popular rating-scale questionnaire for the assessment of the HEXACO personality traits: honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness versus anger, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Given the disadvantages of the rating scale format, a multidimensional forced-choice (MFC) version of the HEXACO-60 would be useful. In this study, we describe the construction and validation of the HEXACO-MFC. We analyzed data from four samples (Ns range from 770 to 977), two of which filled out the original HEXACO-60 and two of which filled out the new HEXACO-MFC. For validation purposes, we also administered other personality questionnaires on the Big Five and the Dark Triad traits, as well as questions on criteria. In addition, we investigated the measurement invariance of the HEXACO-MFC across German and English versions. Overall, the convergent and discriminant validity of the HEXACO-MFC traits with other personality traits was satisfactory, and criterion-related validities provided further evidence for the usefulness of the HEXACO-MFC. Measurement invariance across German and English versions existed for most item blocks in the HEXACO-MFC. Thus, the HEXACO-MFC can be recommended for the valid assessment of the HEXACO traits in the MFC format.

This study aimed to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of a brief version of the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale (PSPS), a measure of the interpersonal expression of perfectionism. Adult participants (N = 2223; Mage = 36.67) from three samples completed all the items from the PSPS: clinical (n = 1,003, Mage = 38.89), community (n = 461, Mage = 58.43), and student (n = 759, Mage = 20.69). Exploratory factor analysis in the combined sample supported a three-factor structure comprising of Perfectionistic Self-Promotion, Nondisplay of Imperfection, and the Nondisclosure of Imperfection. Balancing size of factor loadings with content coverage, three items from each of the three factors were selected to form the 9-item short-form version (PSPS-SF). Confirmatory factor analysis showed excellent model fit in the combined sample and demonstrated measurement invariance across subsamples and gender. Exploratory structural equation modeling demonstrated excellent model fit in the combined sample and demonstrated measurement invariance across the non-clinical subsamples as well as gender. The current study provides preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the 9-item short-form version of the Perfectionism Self-Presentation Scale (PSPS-SF) in assessing perfectionistic self-presentational styles across adult clinical, community, and student samples.

Curiosity and its role in learning and early cognitive development has received increasing attention in infancy research. So far, insights have largely focused on controlled lab-based experimental studies while less is known about individual differences in infants' curiosity in everyday life. Recently, the Infant and Toddler Curiosity Questionnaire (ITCQ) was developed to examine trait curiosity in infants between 5 to 24 months. Extending this novel tool to Dutch-speaking families, this preregistered study translated the ITCQ to Dutch and examined its psychometric properties in a sample of 316 Dutch-speaking caregivers of infants in The Netherlands (5 to 24 months, 47% female). The results indicated that the ITCQ-NL reliably measures infants' general curiosity and their curiosity in three subdomains (Sensory, Investigative, and Interactive Curiosity). Furthermore, the ITCQ-NL showed moderate to good reliability over time (n = 218). Finally, we provide evidence of the questionnaire's construct validity by relating the construct to established temperament measures. To conclude, this study demonstrates the reliability and validity of the ITCQ-NL for assessing individual differences in infants' everyday trait curiosity in a Dutch population. Our instrument will also facilitate the exploration of cross-cultural differences and comparisons across methodological approaches.

State rumination is a temporary activation of repetitive, negative, self-focused thinking in response to specific situational triggers or mood states. We present the results of two studies that examined the psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the Italian version of the Brief State Rumination Inventory (BSRI). Study 1 tested its unidimensionality and measurement invariance across administration methods (paper-and-pencil, N = 216, vs. online, N = 222) and national samples. Study 2 (N = 675) tested its measurement invariance across sex and its construct validity. Results supported the BSRI's unidimensional structure. Configural and weak (metric) invariance were supported across administration methods and national samples, whereas partial strong invariance was established across sex. The Italian BSRI showed construct-validity evidence consistent with theoretical expectations, correlating more strongly with brooding than reflection and more strongly with depression than anxiety or stress. Neuroticism and limited access to emotion regulation strategies emerged as other significant correlates. These findings support the Italian BSRI as a robust tool for assessing state rumination.

Social value judgments help people evaluate which characteristics in others are desirable, affiliative, or potentially costly within social relationships. This cross-sectional study examined age-related differences in these judgments, and their associations with depressive symptoms and perceived social status, using a newly developed Social Value Questionnaire (SVQ) in a large English-speaking sample (N = 681, aged 12-65 years, M = 38.34, SD = 14.91; 66% female). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a four-factor structure comprising Warmth, Unpleasantness, Sociability, and Competence. Structural equation modeling showed age-graded differences in endorsement: Warmth was more strongly endorsed at older ages, whereas Unpleasantness, Sociability, and Competence were less strongly endorsed. Depressive symptoms and perceived social status were each uniquely associated with greater tolerance of Unpleasantness in others, independent of age. These findings suggest that social-evaluative preferences vary systematically across age groups, while also being linked to mood and perceived rank. We discuss these cross-sectional age differences in relation to lifespan motivational theory, contemporary models of social evaluation, and evolutionary accounts of depressed mood.

There is a need to effectively measure mentalization in people with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (SSD) due to its relevance for delusions and hallucinations. The RFQ-8 appears to be an easy-to-administer screening tool for mentalization, but its factor structure is debated. In this study, we examined the psychometric properties of the RFQ‑8 model in individuals with SSD (n = 100) and healthy controls (n = 380). Criterion validity was tested through associations with attachment style and emotional dysregulation. Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used. With a single residual correlation between items 3 and 4, a one-factor solution showed adequate fit. Reliability was acceptable (ωcases = .75; ωcontrols = .76). Partial metric invariance held, but item 7 showed scalar non-invariance, suggesting it should be revised or removed. Secure attachment predicted better mentalizing only in controls, while avoidant and ambivalent styles related to reduced mentalizing. Emotional dysregulation was the strongest predictor of hypomentalizing across groups. Overall, the findings provide support for the single‑factor RFQ‑8 but indicates some measurement issues, particularly related to reverse‑coded items in SSD populations.

Research and theory on mattering have evolved considerably, and the focus has been on individual differences in levels of feelings of mattering and not mattering to others. This work sought to advance understanding by uniquely examining individual differences in the need to matter and who is most impacted and influenced by feelings of not mattering to others. We introduce measures that assess levels of the need to matter, the personal importance of mattering (i.e., the importance of being important), and mattering hypersensitivity (i.e., vulnerability to feeling hurt when made to feel insignificant). Psychometric analyses confirmed that these measures comprise one factor each, with high internal consistency and adequate convergent validity. Correlational analyses established links between elevated scores and levels of psychological distress and narcissistic personality traits. Most notably, the unmet need to matter predicted unique variance in psychological distress and narcissistic traits beyond the variance attributable to self-esteem, general mattering, anti-mattering and fear of not mattering. Overall, these results attest to the research utility of the proposed measures, and they illustrate the risk to mental health and personal vulnerability of people with an unmet need to matter who have a heightened sensitivity and importance associated with whether they matter to other people.

This research explores personality assessment using experience sampling methodology (ESM) as a framework for better understanding temporal dynamics associated with different conceptualizations of traumatic stress (i.e., post-traumatic stress symptoms, race/gender/age discrimination). College student participants (N = 278) completed a 14-day diary study, which included daily measures of the Alternative Model of Personality Disorders (AMPD) and daily items capturing self-concept, interpersonal bothers, emotions, and defenses. Results indicated that traumatic stress-related scales were associated with aggregated mean levels and variability in AMPD dysfunction, aggregated mean levels of self, other, emotion, and defense variables, and moderated several within-person associations relevant for psychodynamic theory (e.g., self-other and emotion-defense patterns). We extend these findings into an ESM case study to demonstrate how to leverage sample-wide scores and patterns in person-specific data.