Ischemic stroke is one of the leading causes of disability and death among adults worldwide. It occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted. Currently available treatments for patients with ischemic stroke focus solely on restoring blood flow. Therefore, there is a lack of methods that would accelerate brain regeneration after a stroke or even provide a protective effect. This study describes the role of the astrocyte-secreted protein CHI3L1 (chitinase-3-like protein 1) in the pathophysiology of stroke, as well as other diseases of the central nervous system. The structure of the protein, the receptors to which CHI3L1 binds and the activated signaling pathways along with the resulting biological effects relevant to ischemic stroke are discussed. It is indicated that changes in CHI3L1 levels potentially influence post-stroke regeneration in both humans and animal models. The common mechanisms of CHI3L1 action across various neurological diseases suggest its significant role in the future diagnosis and treatment of ischemic stroke, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, and glioma.

This work presents an overall characterization of the endocytosis process, including its various forms, stages, and biological significance. Particular emphasis is placed on clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) and the adaptor protein complexes AP1–AP5 that participate in this pathway. Their structure, subcellular localization, function, as well as the disorders and diseases associated with them are addressed. The main attention is devoted to the AP2 complex, which is indispensable in CME. The conformational changes of this complex and their importance in the initiation and progression of clathrin-mediated endocytosis are analysed in detail. The influence of phosphorylation of one of the AP2 subunits on these conformational changes and the positive and negative regulation of the entire AP2 complex by kinases and NECAP proteins is discussed. The study also emphasizes the importance of AP2 in the proper functioning of the nervous system, as well as the associations between structural disruptions of the complex and neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting the therapeutic potential arising from the regulation of its subunit expression.

Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient involved in numerous physiological processes in plants, serving catalytic, structural, and regulatory functions. Maintaining its appropriate concentration requires precise control of uptake, transport, distribution, and storage, as both Zn deficiency and excess lead to disruptions in plant growth and development. This paper presents the mechanisms regulating zinc homeostasis in plants, with a particular focus on the role of membrane transporters and chelating compounds. The ZIP, MTP, and HMA protein families play a key role, being responsible for cellular Zn uptake, its sequestration within organelles, and inter-tissue transport, respectively. Low-molecular-weight chelating ligands maintain safe zinc levels in the cytosol, and some of them facilitate its storage in vacuoles. Furthermore, they enhance its symplastic mobility and enable zinc transport in the xylem and phloem, thereby facilitating its distribution to shoots and seeds. Overall, this demonstrates the complex and multilevel nature of zinc homeostasis regulation in plants

Mitochondrial calcium homeostasis is an important regulator of bioenergetics, redox balance and cell survival. This review discusses the structure, regulation and pathophysiological significance of the mitochondrial Na[+]/Ca[2+] exchanger NCLX, encoded by the SLC8B1 gene. Particular attention is paid to the role of NCLX in Ca[2+] efflux from the mitochondrial matrix, integration of Na[+]–Ca[2+]–ROS signaling, and cellular responses to metabolic stress, hypoxia and mitochondrial injury. The available data indicate that NCLX dysfunction contributes to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, metabolic, inflammatory and neoplastic diseases. However, the function of this transporter strongly depends on cell type, duration of stress and the degree of mitochondrial Ca[2+] overload. Therefore, NCLX should be considered a regulator of mitochondrial function whose diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic relevance requires further validation in experimental and clinical studies.

Julius Marmur (1926-1996) was born in Białystok, however, he spent most of his life in the USA, where he worked at leading research institutions, including Rockefeller University, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and Harvard University. His discoveries regarding DNA functioning today are the fundamental biochemical knowledge. Thanks to his work, we understand the mechanism native DNA thermal denaturation with the loss of biological activity, and the method of reassembling a transforming DNA. Julius Marmur also demonstrated that a single DNA strand (even labeled) can be combined with a strand of another homologous molecule, thus forming a biologically active double helix. For these discoveries, he was nominated with Paul Doty for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1972. Although 100 years after his birth, his scientific discoveries represented a major step towards the creation of recombinant DNA, transforming the way scientists understood DNA and how they could work with it in vitro.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a malignant, hypercellular, and invasive brain tumor characterized by high mortality and recurrence. Their strong heterogeneity, mitotic activity, microvascular proliferation, and foci of necrosis induce therapeutic resistance, resulting in a 5-year survival rate of only 5% in patients diagnosed with glioblastoma. Therefore, it is necessary to identify new targets to improve prognosis, better predict prognosis, and monitor treatment outcomes. It has been suggested that miRNAs—small, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs consisting of 20-22 nucleotides—may be potential candidates for clinical biomarkers in glioblastoma patients. They participate in the post-translational regulation of gene expression through RNA interference. It is believed that, due to their ability to control the biological processes underlying GBM development, miRNAs may aid in the design of drugs for personalized glioma therapy. This article presents the latest insights into the role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis and diagnosis of GBM and as a potential therapeutic target.

Ovarian cancer remains one of the most frequently diagnosed and lethal gynaecological malignancies. Standard treatment involves surgical cytoreduction followed by chemotherapy based on platinum compounds and taxanes. Despite initial therapeutic efficacy, many patients experience disease recurrence and develop drug resistance, posing a significant clinical challenge. This review summarises the main molecular mechanisms underlying resistance to commonly used drugs, including paclitaxel, cisplatin, and PARP inhibitors. The role of multidrug resistance (MDR), associated with the overexpression of ABC transporters and alterations in drug metabolism, is discussed. Particular attention is given to cellular mechanisms, including changes in microtubule structure, regulation of apoptosis, and activation of signalling pathways such as PI3K/AKT/mTOR. Mechanisms related to drug transport, detoxification, and DNA repair are also addressed, together with the influence of the tumour microenvironment and epigenetic modifications. Understanding these mechanisms may contribute to the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Phytotherapy relies on biologically active plant-derived compounds and preparations. The use of phytotherapeutics in treatment of diabetes consequently increases. Many plant extracts interact with key elements of glucose metabolism, e.g. through modulation of DPP-4 activity, increase in glucose intake by tissues and improvement of pancreatic beta-cells. Experimental data indicates that Hairy Rock-rose, tea plant, European olive, American ginseng, berberis or white mulberry can support glycemic control and limit the development of metabolic side effects. Despite vast literature data, the clinical efficacy of several phytotherapeutics remains ambiguous, what indicates the need to conduct further research, in particular well-designed clinical studies. Here we review plants with therapeutic potential, whose use in the treatment of diabetes has been confirmed by experimental in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies; promising directions in future studies on phytotherapeutics have also been indicated.

Riboregulation is a key component of bacterial adaptation, as regulatory RNAs enable rapid and precise control of gene expression in response to stress and fluctuating environmental conditions. This control is exerted at the levels of transcription, translation, and mRNA stability, allowing the cell to efficiently adjust gene expression without the need to produce additional protein regulators. Regulation involves both locally acting elements (including riboswitches, thermosensors, and antisense RNAs) and in trans acting molecules primarily sRNAs which form extensive networks affecting the expression of many genes simultaneously. The multilayered nature of these systems is further enhanced by sRNA-binding proteins and RNA sponges, which modulate the availability of regulators and shape complex gene expression control networks. Modern methods like Hfq-CLASH enable better identification of these interactions in vivo. In parallel, applied research leverages these mechanisms in synthetic biology and against antibiotic resistance.

Lung cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Analytical protein microarrays are a promising diagnostic tool, particularly for early disease detection. They enable rapid and sensitive analysis of multiple biomarkers, outperforming traditional methods, and allow for differentiation of lung cancer types, supporting personalized medicine. An additional advantage is the ability to analyze non-invasive samples, such as serum. Despite certain limitations, this technology is developing dynamically. The aim of this thesis is to present the principles of operation, structure, and analytical applications of protein microarrays as advanced diagnostic tools in molecular biology and in the study of protein interactions. The thesis also discusses the benefits resulting from the use of this technology, its advantages over traditional methods, as well as the limitations affecting its practical application in diagnostics and cancer therapy.

Iridoid glycosides are a diverse group of plant secondary metabolites with broad biological activity and promising pharmacological potential. This review summarizes their structural diversity, occurrence in plants, biosynthetic pathways, and biological properties. Particular attention is given to the biosynthesis derived from IPP and DMAPP, including the well-characterized secoiridoid pathway and the less understood pathway leading to compounds such as aucubin and catalpol. The most important biological activities of iridoids, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, gastroprotective, and anticancer effects, are discussed with clear distinction between in vitro studies, animal models, and limited clinical evidence. The review emphasizes that most available data remain preclinical, while clinical studies are still scarce. Major limitations affecting the therapeutic application of iridoids include low bioavailability, variable chemical stability, lack of extract standardization, and difficulties in translating experimental findings into clinical practice.

The transcription factor REST (RE1-silencing transcription factor) is a key regulator of neuronal gene expression, playing a role in normal brain development and in the pathogenesis of central nervous system (CNS) tumors. By binding RE1 sequences and recruiting repressive complexes, it participates in epigenetic gene silencing, controlling the processes of neurogenesis and cellular differentiation. In CNS tumors, REST exhibits context-dependent effects, most often acting as an oncogene. Deregulation of its expression promotes pro-tumor processes, such as maintaining tumor stem cell properties, inhibiting differentiation, proliferation and increased invasiveness, angiogenesis, adaptation to hypoxia, and shaping the tumor microenvironment. Accumulating evidence indicates its potential as a biomarker and therapeutic target, making REST a promising element of treatment strategies for CNS tumors.

Secondary metabolites, which are natural products of fungi, perform key biological functions and have applications in medicine. The production of these compounds is subject to the control of clusters of biosynthetic genes located within the genome. It has been observed that these genes can become dormant under standard culture conditions. The advent of modern genetic and epigenetic methodologies has rendered the activation of these elements possible, thus facilitating the identification of novel bioactive compounds. The present article delineates classes of metabolites, the mechanisms of their biosynthesis, and current research strategies, combining knowledge from biology, genetics, and biotechnology.

The Escherichia coli bacterium is presented from its discovery in 1885 by the German-Austrian microbiologist and pediatrician Theodor Escherich, to contemporary research using state-of-the-art experimental and bioinformatic techniques, including artificial intelligence and machine learning. E. coli accompany humans from birth as a commensal organism of the gut microbiota. However, some E. coli strains exhibit pathogenic properties, causing intestinal and extraintestinal diseases, sometimes threatening the health and even life of the host. At the same time, 140 years after the discovery of E. coli bacteria, it is the best-studied single-celled organism in the world. Molecular biologists, bacteriologists, and biochemists point to the enormous importance of E. coli as a model organism in understanding the molecular mechanisms of key life processes in both health and disease, as well as its use in industrial-scale biotechnology. That is why E. coli is called the “workhorse of molecular biology and biomedicine,” and scientists working with E. coli strains have been recognized and honored for their discoveries with numerous Nobel Prizes.