Iron, zinc and calcium are essential minerals required for key physiological functions, including oxygen transport, immune function, enzymatic activity and bone health. Despite their importance, deficiencies remain widespread globally, driven in part by the poor bioavailability of these minerals from many dietary sources, particularly plant-based foods. As dietary patterns increasingly shift towards plant-based and novel ingredients, robust methods for assessing mineral bioavailability are urgently needed to support food composition data, dietary modelling and product development. While in vivo approaches remain the reference standard, their cost, complexity and ethical constraints limit their routine application. Consequently, in vitro digestion models have become indispensable tools for screening and for mechanistic investigation of mineral bioaccessibility. The INFOGEST static in vitro digestion method is now the most widely adopted harmonised protocol, providing standardised digestion conditions, found to agree with in vivo data for protein digestion. However, its application to mineral bioaccessibility presents distinct challenges that remain unresolved. These include substantial interference from reagent-derived background minerals, strong matrix-dependent mineral-ligand interactions, and a lack of consensus on how the bioaccessible fraction should be defined and separated following digestion. This review critically examines the use of the INFOGEST method for assessing Fe, Zn and Ca bioaccessibility, highlighting key methodological limitations and recent advances. Future progress will require targeted optimisation of digestion conditions, standardised definitions of bioaccessibility, validation of separation techniques, and direct comparison with in vivo data. Addressing these challenges is essential to ensure that in vitro models generate physiologically meaningful, comparable data capable of informing nutrition research and policy.

The modern surge in obesity can be seen as evidence that food choice remains an important area of study. Sensory science has also provided a necessary contribution to this area. This review will describe the latest scientific understanding on flavour perception and how metabolism, weight management, exercise and food design might affect this perception. Taste research has shifted from sensory testing paradigms to a receptor level scientific understanding of gustation with the discovery of the heterodimeric taste receptor type 1 proteins (T1R) for sweet and umami taste, and the family of taste receptor type 2 (T2R) for the detection of bitterness. TA2R38 has been widely investigated to understand how genetic diversity in bitter taste might influence weight management. Currently there is no substantial evidence that variations in bitter taste affects overall weight status of subjects. However, gustation is highlighted as the key sensory determinant of eating behaviour where there is some evidence that chronic consumption of foods rich in salt and sugar result in a reduced sensitivity to these tastes. Although a strong link between taste sensitivity and BMI appears inconclusive. Human gustatory response to fatty acids is still a matter of debate although dysfunction of this taste maybe seen in cases of obesity. However, gustation is not experienced in isolation and there is an interplay between food structure, oral processing, texture and taste. Therefore, to fully understand the contribution of sensory evaluation in eating behaviour, dynamic sensory techniques need to be applied where facial electromyography has potential.

There are two disparate approaches used to communicate nutritional attributes of foods, based on nutrient composition and food type. Nutrient content fails to account for the rate and site of nutrient absorption, and food type does not differentiate between diverse forms of the same type. The scope of this review is to examine whether a combination of nutrient composition and digesta dynamics provides a coherent framework for rationalising health benefits associated with whole foods, and explaining dietary risk factors associated with chronic non-communicable diseases. Digesta dynamics encompasses the timescales and rates of mouth, stomach, small intestine and large intestine processing. Key concepts include chewing extent, gastric transit time, small intestinal digestion/absorption rate, the proportion of digestate that escapes digestion by the end of the small intestine, and large intestine fermentation rate and extent. Food processing can have profound consequences on digesta dynamics, often resulting in shorter gastric transit, faster small intestinal digestion, less undigested food at the end of the small intestine, and rapid large intestine fermentation. If processing effects act through changes in digesta dynamics, there is no reason to differentiate between factory-processed and analogous kitchen-processed foods. Nutrition messaging based on digesta dynamics as well as nutrient composition would avoid the scapegoating of additives that have no connection to risk factors for common chronic non-communicable conditions. Ultraprocessed foods should be seen as a "brand" that creates an emotional connection with consumers as part of general nutrition messaging, rather than a technical categorisation that distinguishes 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' foods.

Sensory nutrition is an emerging research area that examines how chemosensory perception, particularly taste and smell, shapes dietary behaviours, nutritional status, and disease risk. Variation in how individuals perceive the same foods may help explain differences in diet quality and responsiveness to behavioural dietary interventions, yet chemosensory phenotypes are rarely measured in large samples of hundreds and thousands. Genetic variation contributes to this perceptual diversity and provides a framework for investigating sensory determinants of diet using genomic approaches. This review summarises evidence linking chemosensory genetics to perception and dietary behaviours, and discusses applications for causal inference, precision, and personalised nutrition. Twin and family studies reveal moderate to high heritability for bitter taste traits, with more modest and phenotype-dependent estimates for sweetness, sourness, saltiness, fat-related traits, and olfactory measures. Genome-wide association studies have identified loci in taste and olfactory receptor genes associated with specific chemosensory traits as well as liking and intake of various foods, although the evidence remains concentrated on bitter taste and populations of European ancestry. These genetic variants have been used in Mendelian randomisation, a genetics-based approach that strengthens causal inference, to test whether sensory traits influence dietary behaviour. For precision nutrition, evidence for taste genotype-stratified interventions remains limited and mixed. Realising the promise of sensory nutrition will require scalable, standardised chemosensory phenotyping, Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) data infrastructure, expanded research in diverse populations, and integration with broader biological and sociocultural determinants of dietary intake.

The global population is ageing, accompanied by an increasing prevalence of age-related conditions, including cardiometabolic disease and sarcopenia. Adequate dietary protein intake is essential for healthy ageing, with more than 65% of protein intake in western countries derived from animal-based sources. At the same time, growing concerns regarding environmental sustainability, together with recognised cardiometabolic health benefits of plant-based dietary patterns, are driving a transition towards predominantly plant-based protein diets, referred to as the protein transition. Despite its recognised benefits, the protein transition introduces important scientific and practical challenges. While plant-based dietary patterns may promote cardiometabolic health and environmental sustainability, uncertainty remains regarding their ability to fully support muscle health in older adults. Compared with animal-derived proteins, plant-based proteins may have lower digestibility and less favourable amino acid profiles. However, emerging evidence suggests that combining complementary plant-based protein sources may improve amino acid composition and support both cardiometabolic and muscle health outcomes. The success of the protein transition also depends on feasibility and acceptability in real-world settings. Age-related changes in appetite, sensory perception, and perceived barriers towards plant-based diets may influence adoption among older adults. This review summarises current evidence on protein requirements, protein sources, protein quality, and consumer perspectives relevant to the protein transition and healthy ageing.

Food is more than its nutritional components. It brings people together and connects us to our family, culture and heritage. The development of eating habits and relationships with food begins in infancy and continues across the lifespan. Echoing the theme of Metallica's 72 Seasons tour (which had just concluded its Australian leg when this work was presented), experiences during the early years may shape later patterns of behaviour and identity. This can include relationships with food and eating. This review aims to explore how early life parent/caregiver feeding practices may impact this development of children's eating behaviours. A respectful and responsive approach to feeding interactions from the outset supports the establishment of calm and enjoyable mealtimes. This type of approach encompasses trust in the infants' cues of hunger and satiety, and provides a clear and predictable mealtime environment. In addition, bribery, coercion and pressure are avoided, so that self-regulation is not undermined. This work highlights the central role of the parent-child relationship in shaping long-term eating behaviours. Our ongoing research on a Respectful Approach to parenting, based on the Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE) philosophy (focused on parents and children aged 0-2 years) aims to explore effects of respectful, responsive feeding in everyday family life. Eating habits are shaped not just by what we eat, but how we eat and who we eat with.

Population dietary behaviours have considerable impact on major global challenges including dietrelated noncommunicable diseases, climate change, and food insecurity. Aligning diets with national recommendations, such as the UK Eatwell Guide, have the potential to deliver substantial cobenefits for health and environmental sustainability. To accelerate progress, scalable and timely methods for monitoring dietary patterns are required. Routinely generated smart data, such as supermarket transaction records and loyalty card purchases, represent a novel resource for populationlevel dietary assessment. These datasets provide objective, high-resolution, and near real-time information on food purchasing behaviours. However, deriving meaningful nutrition insights from such data necessitates advanced computational infrastructure, data science and AI capability, and specialist nutrition interpretation. Importantly, these data enable evaluation of natural experiments in realworld food environments. The use of commercial sales data introduces unique governance and datasecurity challenges. Commercial sensitivity requires robust securedata environments, transparent processes, and strong collaborative partnerships between industry and academia. Effective data sharing is contingent on champions within both sectors, as such collaboration is not yet routine. When appropriately governed, consumer purchase data can complement traditional dietary assessment methods and support transformation of the wider food system. This review paper presents academic and industry insights on the use of these novel data sources, highlighting methodological challenges associated with nutrition, health and sustainability metrics. It concludes with recommendations to guide future research employing consumer purchasing data to strengthen evidence generation across the food and population and planetary health landscape.

This review explores opportunities and challenges across data, health metrics, nutrition science, digital technology and policy in the context of healthier food system transformation. Rapid advancements in digital technology and artificial intelligence have reshaped how food is produced, formulated, marketed, purchased and consumed, with vast quantities of data generated across supply chains and retail environments. How individuals access, track and generate food and health information has shifted. Despite unprecedented data availability, fragmentation, diverging definitions, inconsistent health metrics and misaligned timelines across academia, policy, industry and technology limit effective and timely integration. This review develops two interrelated concepts, The Food Data Landscape (FDL) and Nutrition Intelligence (NI). It explores the structure and limitations of the FDL, considers the role of health metrics and describes technological developments and emerging NI applications. A conceptual Food Data-Nutrition Intelligence (FD-NI) Framework is presented providing a shared foundation for advancing more coherent research, policy and practice. This framework positions NI as an integrative layer capable of translating complex, fragmented data into actionable, evidence-based insights that can inform healthier decision making at scale. Transformative potential of AI will not be realised through technological advancement alone. Standardised data infrastructures, transparent assumptions, traceable decision making and collaborative governance frameworks that embed scientific integrity are key. Coordinated collaboration is critical to harness the full potential of NI to deliver meaningful, system-wide, timely transformation towards healthier, more sustainable diets. Future research should define stakeholder roles across the FDL and develop methodological, governance and evaluative frameworks to support responsible and impactful NI.

Traditional methods of measuring diet, mainly FFQ, are not fit for purpose. Diet is complex, with over 150 000 different food items available in UK supermarkets. This review describes the limitations of nutritional assessment methods used in the past. It provides an overview of recent methods using newer technologies, including online tool myfood24. Limitations of dietary assessment methods include recall bias; inability to estimate portion sizes; lack of adaptability across diverse populations; and inadequate food composition data. New tools include mobile apps for real-time intake tracking; use of image-based approaches for portion sizes and food identification; sensor technologies such as smart utensils and bite counters. Online platforms provide an economical approach for large-scale epidemiology. myfood24 is an online tool, developed for research and validated using biomarkers. Having demonstrated success with >250 000 research participants in over 27 countries; myfood24 is also used in healthcare, for student education and other settings. myfood24 focuses on accurate data and ease of participant use. The underlying food composition database curated by nutritionists has fewer missing data and more nutrient variables than standard generic tables. The database includes diet quality and sustainability measures. A new app includes the novel myfood24 Diet Optimization Engine suggesting individual dietary changes to meet nutrition targets. New dietary assessment tools provide more accurate data with deeper insights into dietary behaviour. They need to be used in large epidemiological surveys; for public health population screening and with patients to fully realise their potential.

The quality and quantity of nutrition are well-established factors influencing health. However, research on circadian rhythms has revealed that the timing of nutrition is also crucial, as highlighted by the concept of time-restricted feeding (TRF). In laboratory animals, TRF involves limiting daily energy intake to a consistent window of 8-12 h. This approach has been shown to mitigate, and in some cases reverse, the negative metabolic impacts of an obesogenic diet. Specifically, under such diets, TRF has been found to reduce body weight and adiposity; enhance liver, heart and gut health; improve glucose tolerance and blood pressure; decrease the severity of neurodegenerative diseases; and preserve muscle mass and function. When animals are fed a balanced diet, TRF does not lead to significant weight loss but modestly extends lifespan. Moreover, when combined with calorie restriction, TRF can significantly increase median lifespan. Thus, TRF can work synergistically with optimal nutrition quality and quantity to enhance health. The underlying mechanisms of TRF are being uncovered through studies in mice and fruit flies. These studies systematically examine mRNA, proteins and metabolites during the fed and fasted states of TRF, shedding light on the genes and pathways modulated by TRF in major metabolic organs, including the liver, heart, muscle, adipose tissue and gut. The aim of this review is to present the experiments that established TRF as a time-based nutritional intervention for health improvement and to summarise key molecular, physiological and metabolic findings from animal studies.

This paper reviews the history of Australian Nutrition Policy over the last 50 years with the intent to highlight and examine past successes and failures to help inform current evidence-based nutrition policies and practice. The review outlines the factors and activities leading to the first and only Australian national Food and Nutrition Policy (1992). It describes challenges and strengths around the implementation and evaluation of the policy and the subsequent strategic action plans Eat Well Australia and the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition Strategy and Action plan (2000-2010). To illustrate state and territory policy activities, a brief case study is presented of the positive impacts of Eat Well Queensland before disinvestment by the incoming state government in 2012. The review found a major challenge has been lack of an adequately funded, consistent, sustained commitment to implementation of policy actions. Various efforts to develop supportive infrastructure are described, such as the Australian National Preventive Health Agency (2011-2014). Network analysis and studies of barriers and enablers illustrate the power and influence of unhealthy food and drink industries on evidence-based nutrition policy. The review concludes with discussion of current opportunities, noting the need for ongoing political support and good governance, including active management of vested interests. It also highlights the need for investment in nutrition archives in Australia to improve access to historical data and better inform future policy and programmes.

Childhood and adolescent obesity has emerged as one of the most pressing public health challenges worldwide. The persistence of excess weight from early life into adulthood together with its associated health consequences underscores the importance of effective prevention strategies. However, obesity in early life is driven by complex interactions between biological susceptibility, lifestyle behaviours, social determinants, and obesogenic environments, making prevention particularly challenging.This review synthesises current evidence on childhood obesity prevention, critically examines the effectiveness of existing interventions, and discusses key challenges and opportunities for improving their impact. Evidence indicates that preventive strategies can improve dietary habits, physical activity, and other lifestyle behaviours, although their effects on anthropometric outcomes are generally modest. Interventions addressing multiple determinants and involving key settings such as families, schools, and communities appear more likely to achieve meaningful and sustained effects.Translating evidence from controlled studies into effective, scalable real-world strategies remains a major challenge. Contextual factors, sustainability, stakeholder engagement, and policy support play a critical role in determining intervention success. In this context, systems-oriented and participatory approaches offer promising opportunities to design coordinated, multilevel strategies. Future efforts should focus on early-life prevention, equity-oriented actions, and the integration of scientific evidence into public policies to achieve sustainable population-level impact.

Acute appendicitis is one of the leading causes of surgical emergency hospitalizations. However, the mechanisms leading to the development of appendicitis are poorly understood. Current knowledge suggests an interplay probably led by dietary habits with impact on the microbiome which elicits responses in genetically predisposed individuals. The aim of this review is to assess the nutrition-microbiome-genetic axis associated with acute appendicitis development. The main dietary and nutritional patterns associated to acute appendicitis were low consumption of fibre, water and fish oil, and high levels of saturated fat, salt, processed meat and ultra-processed foods. Collectively, these westernized dietary patterns (WDP) may increase more than 40% the risk of developing acute appendicitis. The WDP are associated to shifts in the microbiome observed in inflamed appendices such as an increased abundance of Fusobacteria together with a lower level of Proteobacteria. While dietary patterns and associated changes in the microbiome may affect a large proportion of the population, only a relatively small percentage develop acute appendicitis suggesting the existence of predisposing genetic factors. Several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) have been identified linking nutrition and microbiome to the genetic background in acute appendicitis. These include the HLA-C SNP rs2524046, associated with coeliac disease, and the variant rs9953918 of NEDD4L (involved in fluid/water mobilization). A hypothetical allergy model for appendicitis has been recently proposed providing a preliminary groundwork that identifies SNPs in or near IL-6, IL-10 and IL-13, NOD2, CCL22 and CTLA4 involved in the pathogenesis of both inflammatory diseases.

Food and nutrition insecurity in high‑income countries is increasingly persistent, driven by intersecting economic, social and environmental disruptions. In Australia, acute shocks such as the COVID‑19 pandemic, floods and bushfires, alongside chronic pressures including rising food prices, housing stress and concentrated corporate power, have exposed structural weaknesses in food access, governance and system resilience. This review examines how community‑led responses to food and nutrition insecurity function during disruption, whether they buffer short-term hardship or contribute to adaptive capacity and redistribution of agency. Guided by the six‑pillar food security framework and a socio-ecological model, responses are examined across household, community, organisational and governance levels. A continuum of responses is identified, ranging from downstream emergency food relief that buffers immediate hardship through to community and organisational food infrastructure that strengthens local resilience and governance‑level responses with greater transformative potential. Drawing on this synthesis, we propose the SEEDS (Socio-Ecological Enablers of Dietary Security) Model, which conceptualises how food system responses across socio-ecological levels and over time can progress from buffering (acute) to adaptation (medium‑term) and ultimately transformation (long‑term). Central to this framework is a shift in decision‑making power, accountability and participation. While many initiatives improve food access and short‑term stability during crises, the greatest potential for transformation lies where responses are embedded within governance structures, enable meaningful community participation and influence policy, procurement and resource allocation. Implications for public health nutrition practice include expanded roles in systems leadership, cross‑sector governance and advocacy for upstream policy reform.

Despite the established health benefits of vegetables, most children do not consume enough to meet dietary recommendations. Early childhood is a critical period for shaping lifelong eating habits, and social eating experiences play an important role in this learning. This review synthesises evidence on how positive social influences support children's vegetable intake. Findings across shared eating occasions, positive eating atmosphere, modelling and social facilitation demonstrate that social experiences shape healthy dietary behaviour, including vegetable intake. The review also highlights the importance of individual differences, including children's eating behaviours and household characteristics such as socioeconomic status, food insecurity and household chaos, which may influence both the feasibility and effectiveness of creating positive social eating environments. In addition, the review identifies key opportunities for intervention and emphasises the need for more longitudinal research to understand how social eating processes evolve across development. Together, the evidence underscores the potential of positive social influences to enhance children's vegetable consumption and supports the development of tailored, socially grounded nutrition interventions.