This chapter includes an extensive examination of the neuroanatomical and neurophysiological basis of dreaming and is primarily concerned with the phenomenology of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Relying on integrated findings from neuroimaging, electrophysiology, and neurochemical studies, the chapter describes that dreaming results from the interaction of brain regions such as the brainstem, thalamus, limbic system, and prefrontal cortex. The chapter underscores the central contribution of pontine cholinergic mechanisms to the generation of REM, combined with thalamocortical integration, to define perceptual and narrative features of dreams. Limbic activation in the amygdala and hippocampus is responsible for the emotional intensity and memory-related features of dream content, and relative prefrontal deactivation helps minimize logical constraint and promotes associative reasoning. Oscillatory dynamics, particularly theta and gamma activity, are considered important underpinnings of dream vividness and perceptual integration. With its focus on clinical conditions, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and REM sleep behavior disorder, the chapter provides a translational perspective beyond simple mechanistic models associated with the brain. The modulation of acetylcholine, serotonin, and norepinephrine is proposed to be one of the most important mechanisms of regulation with therapeutic potential. The chapter also addresses new domains such as dream neuropharmacology, neuromodulation, ethical implications, and cross-cultural perspectives of dream interpretation. More generally, it places dreaming as a neurobiologically driven, functionally relevant phenomenon with significance for emotional regulation, memory consolidation, and clinical intervention in sleep medicine.

This chapter covers the role of brain oscillations in shaping the microarchitecture of sleep and their role in physiological and pathological states. Neural oscillations (delta to gamma frequencies) are fundamental to the structure of sleep stages and play a central role in cognitive and restorative processes of the human brain. This chapter discusses how different oscillatory signatures characterize non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, with slow waves dominating deep sleep and desynchronization in REM sleep. Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are complementary to investigate sleep dynamics. EEG offers high temporal resolution in terms of oscillatory activity, and fMRI provides a spatial mapping of the network. The convergence of these modalities has provided new insights into sleep spindles, slow oscillations, and their association with large functional connections. Also emphasized in the chapter are the quantitative EEG metrics and advances in signal processing and machine learning that can help identify sleep stages and pathological patterns. The disruption of oscillatory dynamics in sleep disorders and neurodegenerative conditions is also explored as oscillatory biomarkers can be used as diagnostic and prognostic tools. Overall, the chapter highlights the implications of oscillatory dynamics as a common framework to connect sleep physiology with cognitive function and clinical applications, highlighting the potential for multimodal neuroimaging.

This chapter examines the intricate relationship between sleep and higher-order cognitive functions, particularly attention and executive control. Sleep is presented as a critical modulator of cognitive performance, influencing neural systems that underpin attentional regulation, working memory, and decision-making. The chapter highlights the vulnerability of attention to sleep deprivation, with impairments in sustained attention and processing efficiency linked to disruptions in dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems. The chapter also examines how sleep parameters and sleep architecture affect ADHD pathophysiology and symptomatology. Executive functions, including cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control, are shown to depend heavily on the integrity of prefrontal cortical networks, which are particularly sensitive to sleep disturbances. Neurobiological mechanisms underlying these relationships are explored, including thalamocortical circuitry, cholinergic modulation, and neuroendocrine influences such as cortisol dysregulation. Structural and functional neuroimaging studies reveal that insufficient sleep is associated with reduced prefrontal activity and altered connectivity, contributing to observable cognitive deficits. The chapter also discusses clinical implications, emphasizing the role of sleep interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy in enhancing sleep quality, cognitive outcomes, and ADHD management. The bidirectional relationship between sleep and cognition is underscored, positioning sleep as a modifiable factor in optimizing cognitive resilience and mitigating neuropsychiatric risk.

Sleep is an essential biological process regulating emotions and involving interactions between limbic and cortical systems. The amygdala, hippocampus, insula, and anterior cingulate cortex function as a bottom-up network for emotional processing, whereas prefrontal regions control the top-down aspect. Neurophysiological, neurochemical, and network modifications affect these circuits during sleep stages i.e. rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) phases. Sleep deprivation throws this balance out of synchrony, making emotional responsiveness increasingly pronounced and regulation more compromised, and can lead to, or aggravate, mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD. This chapter integrates fundamental neuroscience, system modelling, neuroimaging, and clinical insights into account of limbic and cortical brain circuitry in the context of sleep-induced emotional regulation.

This chapter synthesizes current evidence on the role of sleep in memory consolidation, emphasizing the interplay between neural oscillations, synaptic plasticity, and cognitive processes. Sleep is conceptualized as an active state, facilitating the encoding, stabilization, and integration of memories into long-term storage. Distinct contributions of sleep stages are highlighted, with slow-wave sleep (SWS) supporting declarative memory consolidation through hippocampal-neocortical replay mechanisms, and Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep enhancing procedural and emotional memory processing. The synaptic homeostasis hypothesis is discussed as a central theoretical framework, proposing that sleep downscales synaptic strength while preserving salient memory traces, thereby optimizing neural efficiency and learning capacity. The chapter further explores the role of sleep spindles, delta oscillations, and high-frequency activity in mediating synaptic plasticity and memory reorganization. Neuroimaging evidence demonstrates coordinated activity between hippocampal and cortical networks during sleep, reinforcing the concept of memory replay and systems consolidation. Clinical implications are addressed, including the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance and the potential for sleep-based interventions to enhance learning and mitigate cognitive decline. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the bidirectional relationship between sleep and memory, underscoring the importance of sleep quality in maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan.

This chapter explores the neural mechanisms and architectural organization of sleep, which is essential for memory consolidation, neural plasticity, metabolic homeostasis, and cognitive function. Sleep is regulated by an integrated system of homeostatic sleep pressure and circadian rhythms that is linked to distributed neural networks such as the hypothalamus, brainstem, thalamus, basal forebrain, and cerebral cortex. Control of sleep is mediated through the balance between sleep-promoting networks (e.g. ventrolateral preoptic nucleus and its GABAergic projections) and arousal-promoting (e.g. orexinergic, cholinergic, monoaminergic, and histaminergic networks). This chapter looks at sleep from the macro and micro points of view and emphasizes the distinct neurophysiological attributes and functions of NREM and REM sleep. We focus on slow-wave activity, sleep spindles, and thalamocortical oscillations as electrophysiological substrates for synaptic plasticity, memory consolidation, and large-scale network synchronization. Research in polysomnography, neuroimaging, computational neuroscience, and artificial intelligence has also shed light on the neural architecture of sleep and its role in cognition, emotional regulation, and brain health. All in all, sleep is discovered as an emergent property of integrated neural systems that has a fundamental role to play in neuropsychiatric, metabolic, and neurodegenerative disorders and further scope for translational and clinical sleep investigations.

The global rise in age-related neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia, significantly impacts healthcare systems and quality of life. Mindfulness and meditation (MM), rooted in ancient philosophical traditions, are gaining attention as promising non-pharmacological treatments. This chapter examines the historical evolution, scientific foundations, therapeutic benefits, and existing challenges of mindfulness and meditation practices in promoting emotional and cognitive health among older adults. A comprehensive literature review was conducted, drawing from clinical trials, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, neuroscientific studies, and literature reviews available in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Only peer-reviewed articles published in English, focusing specifically on mechanisms and therapeutic impacts of MM in aging populations, were included. Evidence supports MM's efficacy in enhancing cognitive function, emotional resilience, and overall mental health through mechanisms like neuroplasticity, increased gray matter density, improved autonomic balance, and reduced cortisol secretion. However, substantial challenges persist, including methodological variability, psychological risks such as anxiety or dissociative symptoms, and cultural sensitivity concerns, complicating broader implementation. Mindfulness and meditation are effective therapeutic approaches for addressing emotional and cognitive impairments associated with aging. Nevertheless, addressing methodological consistency, psychological safety, and cultural inclusivity remains critical. Further studies should emphasize methodological standardization, culturally adapted interventions, and technological innovations such as digital platforms and virtual reality to enhance MM's accessibility and effectiveness.

Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) is one of the best non-drug treatments for dementia patients that is based on evidence and can help them improve their cognitive and emotional performance. CST developed from reality orientation and social interaction models into a prevalent intervention that employs themed activities to stimulate memory, language, and attention functions, thereby improving participant engagement and quality of life. This paper elucidates the theoretical framework, session organisation, and therapeutic methodologies of CST. The research examines the broader implications of CST by assessing its efficacy for patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), vascular dementia, and Parkinson's disease. This section assesses the enduring efficacy of CST and examines its correlation with pharmacological interventions, while also exploring contemporary adaptations of CST, including individualised CST (iCST), maintenance CST (MCST), and virtual or technology-enhanced delivery methods. The chapter evaluates global implementation practices, cultural adaptation strategies, and clinical implementation challenges, particularly in resource-limited settings. The chapter illustrates the synergistic benefits of integrating Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) with pharmacological interventions and physical exercise regimens, while emphasising the necessity for research to attain universal and sustainable access for global populations.

The elderly population is rising in number, and along with it, the distribution of neuropsychiatric disorders is also increasing. These disorders pose a challenge in treating them effectively in a timely manner. As most geriatric patients have comorbidities, the side effects of multiple medications, including drugs for neuropsychiatric disorders, cumulatively impair their well-being. To decrease the drug doses and hence the side effects, Non-Pharmacological Interventions (NPIs) pave a prominent pathway for the handling of patients. Cognitive stimulation therapy, mindfulness and meditation, music and art therapy, physical activity, social engagement, occupational therapy, reminiscence therapy, and technology-assisted interventions are the treatment modalities of neuropsychiatric disorders. In conjunction with the outcomes of these interventions on neuropsychiatric disorders, their limitations, challenges, and future directions are also explored. Though these evidence-based therapies are beneficial, optimal guidelines, a shortage of skilled therapy providers, long-term outcomes, and knowledge about the mechanism of action are inadequate. Finally, engaging in social interaction, daily exercise, and having a creative hobby, such as drawing and listening to music, delays the worsening of neuropsychiatric symptoms in the aging population. In this chapter, we aim to review the science behind NPIs for neuropsychiatric disorders extensively.

Neuropsychiatric disorders are chronic diseases present in the community and cause both personal and community burdens. Though therapeutically useful and beneficial, standard treatments and managements face some challenges such as social discrimination, concerns about treatments' side effects, and delay in the delivery of the healthcare services. To overcome these barriers, technology-assisted interventions have emerged and are nowadays increasingly used due to their potentials to offer accessible, personalized, and cost-efficient care in neuropsychiatric field. It is believed that these new advancements provide many advantages, such as accessibility, the direct follow-up of the patients, and the development of neuropsychiatric care in the low-income countries. In contrast, technology-assisted interventions in neuropsychiatric disorders encounter certain limitations, especially those related to ethical considerations such as patient privacy, equal access, and data security. This article reviews the role of digital health tools, neurostimulation techniques, and brain-computer interface in neuropsychiatric field. Also, it discusses the advantages and limitations of each technology.

This chapter explores the ethical landscape of non-pharmacological interventions (NPIs) in elderly adults for neuropsychiatric illnesses. As drug-free alternatives, NPIs ranging from cognitive and behavioral therapies to lifestyle changes, sensory modalities, and AI-based devices, are becoming increasingly popular due to their therapeutic utility and reduced risk of side effects. However, their use raises pertinent ethical concerns of autonomy, informed consent, equity, privacy of information, and the role of artificial intelligence. The chapter addresses the impact of cognitive impairments on decision-making capacity and, therefore, the place of shared decision-making and supported consent. Structural access barriers, including geographic, cultural, and socioeconomic differences, are also addressed. Of particular interest are the ethical use of digital technology, where confidentiality of data, transparency, and impartiality of algorithms are crucial in upholding patient trust and dignity. By threading ethical critique throughout each area of intervention, the chapter invokes inclusive, patient-centered practice respectful of justice, beneficence, and respect for persons. The objective is to support responsible innovation in neuropsychiatric care that is continuous and participative, with stakeholders and ethical oversight at all stages.

With more cases of neuropsychiatric and chronic degenerative conditions worldwide, caregivers now play a vital role in healthcare. This chapter examines the different aspects of caregiving, including its medical, emotional and ethical sides, in cases of dementia, Parkinson's disease, stroke and spinal muscular atrophy. Emphasizing a shift from viewing caregivers as ancillary figures to recognising them as a co-therapeutic agents, highlights their impact on patient outcomes, continuity of care, and quality of life. Evidence-based interventions that use cognitive behavioural therapy, teach mindfulness and include structured routines for caregivers are assessed for how they help reduce stress on caregivers and improve the stability of those receiving care. The chapter also points out how important it is to practice culturally sensitive and ethical care in any healthcare setting, especially when resources are limited. The best practices and guidelines from the United States are reviewed to demonstrate how support for caregivers can be woven throughout the care system globally. The chapter promotes the inclusion of caregiver well-being in regular healthcare plans, making it an essential part of care rather than a secondary issue.

This chapter aims to explore the theory, types, benefits, and practical applications of Reminiscence Therapy (RT) in elderly care. RT, developed by Robert Butler in the 1960s, uses past memories triggered by photos, music, and familiar objects to improve cognitive, emotional, and social well-being in older adults. The chapter first explains the history and types of RT, including integrative, instrumental, and transmissive forms. It then details the social benefits, highlighting how group RT reduces isolation and strengthens relationships among seniors. Next, the chapter discusses cognitive and emotional improvements such as enhanced memory, reduced depression, and increased self-acceptance. The practical use of RT in care settings is explained, showing how it supports patients with dementia by slowing cognitive decline and preserving identity. Finally, ethical considerations and cultural adaptations are emphasized to ensure effective and respectful therapy. Overall, the chapter presents RT as a valuable, person-centered approach that improves the quality of life for older adults by harnessing the healing power of memory and social connection.