OBJECTIVE: People with serious mental illness (SMI) face higher morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular disease (CVD). Low health literacy (HL) is a risk factor for CVD, but the relationship between HL and CVD is understudied in people with SMI. This study examined the association between HL and (1) prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and (2) risk and prevalence of CVD in people with SMI. METHODS: Participants with diagnosed SMI were enrolled in this cross-sectional study at a behavioral health agency (N = 140). HL was measured using the Health Literacy Questionnaire (HLQ) and participants were categorized by low, moderate, or high HL. MetS was determined by National Cholesterol Education Program’s Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP ATP) III criteria. CVD risk was calculated using the Framingham 10-year risk score. Prevalent CVD included self-reported history of myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, and/or other heart disease. RESULTS: Most participants identified as Black (61%) and male (64%) with education levels varying from less than high school to some college or more. In multivariable models, low HL was associated with increased prevalence of MetS (p = 0.013), risk of CVD (p = 0.030), and prevalence of CVD (p = 0.037) after adjusting for age, gender, race, ethnicity, education, nicotine dependence, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Low HL is associated with poorer cardiometabolic health in people with SMI. Prospective studies adequately powered to examine the relationships between HL, MetS, and CVD in this population are warranted.

BACKGROUND: Sarcopenia is an age-related geriatric syndrome associated with an increased risk of metabolic syndrome (MS). However, the prevalence of MS among individuals with sarcopenia remains uncertain. This meta-analysis aimed to estimate the global pooled prevalence of MS in patients with sarcopenia. METHODS: We conducted the first global systematic review to quantify the prevalence of MS among people with sarcopenia. A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, and CINAHL Complete databases was conducted on 28 May 2025. Pooled prevalence was calculated with a random effects model. Sensitivity and subgroup analyses were performed to identify sources of heterogeneity. This meta-analysis was prospectively registered in the PROSPERO database (Number: CRD420251115631). RESULTS: 15 studies involving 72,129 individuals with sarcopenia were ultimately included and sample sizes ranged from 47 to 61,438. The pooled prevalence of MS among individuals with sarcopenia was 30%(95% CI 22%–40%); with substantial between-study heterogeneity (I[2] = 99.3%, p < 0.001). Diagnostic criteria markedly influenced the estimates: studies using the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III) definition yielded 29% (95% CI 22%–37%), whereas those employing the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) definition reported 47% (95% CI 46%–48%). Substantial geographic variation was observed, with relatively higher prevalence estimates reported in South Korea (39%, 95% CI 20%–59%). CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the global prevalence of MS in individuals with sarcopenia, with comparatively higher pooled prevalence estimates observed in South Korea, the United States, and Australia. Standardized diagnostic criteria and unified management strategies for this comorbidity warrant urgent investigation.

Background: Glaucoma is a leading cause of irreversible blindness that is increasingly being linked to systemic metabolic disturbances. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of metabolic conditions that are associated with various ocular diseases, however the relationship between MetS and glaucoma remains insufficiently explored. This study aimed to investigate the associations between MetS and its components of central obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, high blood pressure, high blood triglycerides, and low high-density lipoprotein with glaucoma in a large Taiwanese population. Methods: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using data from the Taiwan Biobank, encompassing 93,905 participants aged 40 years and older. MetS was defined according to the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATP III) criteria, and glaucoma status was determined through self-reported diagnoses. Statistical analyses included logistic regression models adjusted for demographic and clinical variables. Results: The prevalence of MetS in the study population was 25.6%, and the association between MetS and glaucoma was significant (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.15; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-1.30). A dose-response relationship was observed, with the risk of glaucoma increasing along with the number of MetS components, with a peak OR of 1.36 for individuals with four MetS components. Among the MetS components, impaired glucose tolerance showed the strongest association with glaucoma (OR = 1.17; 95% CI: 1.03-1.32). MetS was an independent risk factor for glaucoma, and the risk increased in parallel with the number of metabolic abnormalities. Conclusions: These findings show the importance of metabolic health in preventing glaucoma and suggest that targeted screening and early interventions may help to mitigate the risk of glaucoma in individuals with MetS.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) and subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) are prevalent endocrine-metabolic disorders with significant cardiovascular implications. Emerging evidence suggests a bidirectional relationship between these conditions, but findings remain inconsistent across populations. This systematic review synthesizes existing literature to evaluate the association between SCH and MetS, focusing on prevalence, demographic variations, and mechanistic links. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a comprehensive search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase up to April 2025. Twelve observational studies (cross-sectional, cohort, and case-control) were included after screening. Studies were selected based on predefined criteria: adult populations (≥18 years), clear definitions of SCH (elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) with normal free thyroxine 4 (FT4)) and MetS (National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III), International Diabetes Federation (IDF), or Joint Interim criteria). Data were extracted on study characteristics, prevalence rates, and metabolic associations. Quality assessment used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. SCH prevalence was significantly higher in MetS patients (range 8.9-37%) as compared to controls, with notable geographic and gender disparities. Key findings included: (1) Strong associations between SCH and central obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension; (2) Gender-specific risks, with males showing higher MetS incidence and females exhibiting higher SCH prevalence; (3) Age-related trends, with SCH prevalence increasing with age, though no elevated risk was observed in individuals ≥50 years. Longitudinal data suggested MetS may predict SCH development. This review supports a significant association between SCH and MetS, driven by shared pathways involving lipid metabolism, insulin resistance, and adiposity. Demographic variations underscore the need for tailored screening, particularly in high-risk groups. Standardized diagnostic criteria and prospective studies are warranted to clarify causality and therapeutic implications.