This study aimed to determine the effects of a mixture of tithonia (Tithonia diversifolia) forage, palm kernel meal-based concentrate, and katuk leaves (Sauropus androgynus) on nutrient digestibility, feed intake, milk production, and the composition of milk in first-lactation Sapera dairy goats. The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with four treatments: A (control; commercial forage and commercial concentrate), B (60% tithonia + 20% commercial concentrate + 20% palm kernel meal-based concentrate), C (B + 1.5% katuk leaves), and D (B + 3% katuk leaves). The addition of katuk leaves to the diet resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in feed intake, protein digestibility, and milk yield by 18% compared with the control group. The fat, protein, and total milk solids content also increased by 9%, 12%, and 7%, respectively. The combination of tithonia and katuk leaves in this tropical feed system improved nutrient utilization efficiency and the quality of Sapera goat milk production in a sustainable manner.

Sauropus androgynus (Breynia androgyna) is used as a food and medicinal plant in South and Southeast Asia. The leaves are used as a galactogogue in Indonesia and Malaysia where it is called katuk. It is high in provitamin A carotenoids, vitamins C and E and several minerals. It also has a high content of papaverine, polyphenols and flavonoids, especially quercetin and kaempferol. Animal studies indicate that Sauropus androgynus increased the expression of prolactin and oxytocin genes in lactating mice.[1] Human studies of Sauropus androgynus as a galactogogue contain serious design deficiencies and do not necessarily prove that Sauropus is a galactogogue. Excessive ingestion of fresh Sauropus androgynus leaves can cause bronchiolitis obliterans, which is potentially fatal. Most patients were young and middle-aged women (mean age 39 years). Cooked leaves may not result in similar toxicity.[1]

This study aimed to optimize a formulation of Spatholobus littoralis Hassk. stems and Sauropus androgynus L. leaves using Simple Lattice Design (SLD). In this context, the response variable was DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) antioxidant activity, while the optimum extract concentration of the two plants served as the experimental factor. Subsequently, the optimum formula was investigated for its in vitro anti-inflammatory activity against COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) and through in silico study. Molecular docking on the COX-2 receptor (PDB ID: 5IKQ) from the secondary metabolite profile was validated for the optimum formula. The formulation recommended by SLD comprised a 1:1 mixture of 70% ethanol extract of S. littoralis Hassk. stems and S. androgynus L. leaves. This optimum formula had an IC50 value of 108.70 µg/mL for the DPPH antioxidant with a synergistic effect due to the production of higher COX-2 inhibitory activity (73.05 ± 2.36%) than the single extract at 100 µg/mL. Daidzein (-8.514 kcal/mol), (10E,12Z)-9-Hydroperoxy-10,12-octadecadienoic acid (-7.604 kcal/mol), arteannuic acid (-7.114 kcal/mol), L-Proline,4-hydroxy-5-oxo-4-(tetrahydro-2,3,4-trihydroxy-2-furanyl)- (-6.480 kcal/mol), and Androst-2-en-17-amine,4,4-dimethyl-N-(2-phenylethyl)-, (5.alpha.)- (-5.440 kcal/mol) were the five compounds from the 70% ethanol extract of S. littoralis Hassk. stems and S. androgynus L. leaves that strongly bound 5IKQ. These compounds were obtained from five groups of compounds, namely flavonoids, fatty acids, terpenoids, amino acid derivatives, and amine derivatives. The formulation of S. littoralis Hassk. and S. androgynus L. extract has potential as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent.

Vegetable leather is an emerging preservation strategy that extends shelf life, reduces postharvest losses, and provides a convenient format for nutrient-rich vegetables. Sweet leaf (Sauropus androgynus L. Merr.) and amaranth (Amaranthus hybridus L.) are rich in bioactive compounds, making them promising raw materials for functional vegetable leather. This study optimized vegetable leather formulation by evaluating the effects of carrageenan, sorbitol, and sweet leaf-amaranth ratios on mechanical and physicochemical properties. Response surface methodology (RSM) with a D-optimal design was applied using Design Expert 13.0.12 software. Factors tested included carrageenan concentration (0.5%-2.5%), sorbitol concentration (1%-13%), and sweet leaf-amaranth ratios (25:75, 50:50, and 75:25). Optimization results identified the optimal formula as 0.877% carrageenan, 1% sorbitol, and a 25:75 sweet leaf-amaranth ratio, with a desirability value of 0.864. The optimized product exhibited tensile strength of 6.08 N/mm2, elongation of 6%, solubility of 92.77%, moisture content of 10.93%, and ash content of 3.11%. Functional analysis of the optimized product showed a chlorophyll content of 9.35 ± 0.35 mg·L-1 and antioxidant activity of 76.0 ± 0.02% inhibition. Sensory evaluation indicated neutral to slightly favorable acceptance, with overall acceptability of 5.1 ± 0.90 on a seven-point hedonic scale. These results confirm that the optimized sweet leaf-amaranth vegetable leather has promising functional and consumer attributes in addition to desirable physicochemical properties.

Wild edible plants (WEPs) play a crucial role in sustaining local food systems, cultural heritage, and livelihoods in northeastern Thailand. This study documents the diversity, cultural significance, medicinal use, and economic value of WEPs among the Tai Yoy community in Akat Amnuai District, Sakon Nakhon Province. Field surveys, interviews, and market observations recorded 78 species belonging to 42 families, with 52 species represent new records for the province. Fruits and leaves were the most commonly used parts, while multifunctional species such as Curcuma angustifolia Roxb., Phyllanthus androgynus (L.) Chakrab. & N.P.Balakr., and Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz were highly valued for both dietary and medicinal purposes. Quantitative analyses, including the Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI), fidelity level (FL), and Jaccard's similarity index (JI), revealed strong cultural consensus on key species and regional patterns shaped by ecological and sociocultural factors. Market surveys identified 25 species contributing to household income, highlighting the economic importance of WEPs and the potential risks of overharvesting. The study emphasizes the need for sustainable management, including cultivation of high-demand species, to reduce pressure on wild populations while supporting food security and traditional knowledge. These findings provide a comprehensive baseline for future ethnobotanical research, conservation planning, and the sustainable use of WEPs in northeastern Thailand.

This work reports the impact of carbon dots (CDs) on plant growth and their application in tissue culture media. Nitrogen-doped CDs (NCDs) were synthesized from the extract of Sauropus androgynus leaves using the hydrothermal method. The synthesized NCDs were characterized using UV-visible absorption spectroscopy, Photoluminescence spectroscopy, High-resolution transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Cytotoxicity was assessed using an MTT assay in CHO-K1 cells, confirming the low cytotoxicity of NCDs. Vigna radiata L. (mung bean) seed priming was performed with varying concentrations of NCDs, and the results showed a significant enhancement in germination rate and seedling vigor compared with untreated controls. The fluorescence imaging technique was utilized to confirm the absorption and translocation of NCDs within plants by exploiting their fluorescence. The applicability of NCDs was extended to plant tissue culture, demonstrating improvements in in vitro seed germination, shoot multiplication, callus induction, and callus culture proliferation. Our findings validated the potential of NCDs as efficient bioimaging tools, non-toxic growth promoters for plant growth and tissue culture applications. They paved the way for their integration into sustainable agriculture and biotechnology practices.

Phylogenomic approaches effectively minimize topological incongruences caused by heterogeneous gene evolutionary rates among lineages. The taxonomic status of Breynia, Glochidion, Synostemon, and Sauropus-whether they should be merged into Phyllanthus or retain their separate generic status-remains controversial. Moreover, these taxonomic revisions lack evidences from phylogenomic evidence. In this study, we assembled the first complete plastid genomes of Breynia disticha, Glochidion eriocarpum, G. hirsutum, G. lanceolarium, Phyllanthus fluitans, Sauropus androgynus, and Synostemon bacciformis to elucidate plastome evolutionary dynamics and resolve phylogenetic relationships among these five genera. The plastomes ranged in size from 152,927 to 157,460 bp, encoding a conserved set of 78 protein-coding genes, 35-36 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and 4 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, totaling 117-118 unique genes. Notably, 12 novel tRNA secondary structures were identified, potentially linked to lineage-specific adaptations. Structural variation at the LSC/IRb boundary, driven by IRb expansion-contraction dynamics, resulted in significant gene length and content heterogeneity. Divergence hotspot analyses identified petA-psbJ, rpl22, ndhF-rpl32, and ycf1 as hypervariable loci suitable for DNA barcoding applications. Positive selection signals were detected in five genes (ndhB, rpl33, rps15, ycf2, ycf4), suggesting their critical roles in environmental adaptation. Phylogenomic discordance between plastid and nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) datasets was pervasive across Breynia, Glochidion, Phyllanthus, Sauropus, and Synostemon, likely attributable to historical hybridization or chloroplast capture events. Given that the intergeneric boundaries among Breynia, Glochidion, Phyllanthus s.s., Sauropus, and Synostemon are obscure and that extensive cytonuclear discordance exists, we recommend accepting a broad circumscription of Phyllanthus.

In the present study, the full-genome sequence of a novel potyvirus, provisionally named "Sauropus androgynus potyvirus 1" (SAPV1), was determined using a combination of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) contig assembly, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) PCR. The full-genome sequencing of SAPV1, excluding the 3' poly(A) tail, was 10,365 nucleotides long and encoded a large polyprotein comprising 3,315 amino acids. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis based on the multiple sequence alignment of the polyprotein sequence revealed that SAPV1 clustered with the genus Potyvirus as a monophyletic clade, with its closest evolutionary relative being the Plum pox virus (PPV). BLAST searches revealed that the polyprotein sequence of SAPV1 shares the highest amino acid sequence identity of 45.6% with known viruses, with the highest being PPV. According to the species demarcation criteria of the family Potyviridae and the phylogenetic analysis, we propose that SAPV1 represents a novel member of the genus Potyvirus, infecting Sauropus androgynus, a plant widely used in medicine and the food industry.

Sodium nitrate (NaNO2), frequently utilized as a food ingredient for colour enhancement and meat preservation, has been shown to induce oxidative stress and cause anaemia. This study evaluated the ameliorative effect of tablets from the chlorophyll of S. androgynus (L) Merr leaves (TCSA) in NaNO2-induced rats. Thirty-six adult female Wistar rats were randomly assigned to 6 groups: control group, NaNO2 group (50 mg/kg BW), NaNO2+ TCSA-1 (50 mg/kg NaNO2 and 0.016 mg/kg BW TCSA), NaNO2+ TCSA-10 (50 mg/kg NaNO2 and 0.16 mg/kg BW TCSA), NaNO2+ TCSA-100 (50 mg/kg NaNO2 and 1,6 mg/kg BW TCSA), and NaNO2+ Fe (positive control group, 50 mg/kg NaNO2 and iron/ Fe supplement). Over 30 days, the haematological and liver function were assessed from blood samples. Exposure to NaNO2 resulted in significant reductions in packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (Hb) concentration, and red blood cell (RBC) count, alongside elevated levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), creatinine, urea, and gamma-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT). TCSA had a therapeutic benefit in NaNO2-induced rats comparable to iron supplementation. The antioxidant properties of chlorophyll in the tablets markedly reduce the oxidative damage caused by NaNO2. Further studies are necessary to comprehensively analyze the molecular evaluations of the biological activities of tablets from S. androgynus chlorophyll.

A new virus was found in Sauropus androgynus plants with curled and yellow leaves in China and tentatively named "Sauropus androgynus virus" (SaV). The complete genome of SaV is an 8007-nucleotide-long (+)RNA, excluding the 3'-poly(A) tail, and contains five open reading frames. Both pairwise comparisons and phylogenetic analysis of the putative replicase and coat proteins showed that SaV has a high level of sequence similarity to members of the genus Allexivirus of the family Alphaflexiviridae. This is the first report of an allexivirus in Sauropus androgynus.

The Phyllanthaceae family comprises a diverse range of plants with medicinal, edible, and ornamental value, extensively cultivated worldwide. Polyploid species commonly occur in Phyllanthaceae. Due to the rather complex genomes and evolutionary histories, their speciation process has been still lacking in research. In this study, we generated chromosome-scale haplotype-resolved genomes of two octoploid species (Phyllanthus emblica and Sauropus spatulifolius) in Phyllanthaceae family. Combined with our previously reported one tetraploid (Sauropus androgynus) and one diploid species (Phyllanthus cochinchinensis) from the same family, we explored their speciation history. The three polyploid species were all identified as allopolyploids with subgenome A/B. Each of their two distinct subgenome groups from various species was uncovered to independently share a common diploid ancestor (Ancestor-AA and Ancestor-BB). Via different evolutionary routes, comprising various scenarios of bifurcating divergence, allopolyploidization (hybrid polyploidization), and autopolyploidization, they finally evolved to the current tetraploid S. androgynus, and octoploid S. spatulifolius and P. emblica, respectively. We further discuss the variations in copy number of alleles and the potential impacts within the two octoploids. In addition, we also investigated the fluctuation of metabolites with medical values and identified the key factor in its biosynthesis process in octoploids species. Our study reconstructed the evolutionary history of these Phyllanthaceae species, highlighting the critical roles of polyploidization and hybridization in their speciation processes. The high-quality genomes of the two octoploid species provide valuable genomic resources for further research of evolution and functional genomics.

Sauropus androgynus (S. androgynus) (2n = 4x = 52) is one of the most popular functional leafy vegetables in South and Southeast Asia. With its rich nutritional and pharmaceutical values, it has traditionally had widespread use for dietary and herbal purposes. Here, the genome of S. androgynus was sequenced and assembled, revealing a genome size of 1.55 Gb with 26 pseudo-chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis traced back the divergence of Sauropus from Phyllanthus to approximately 29.67 million years ago (Mya). Genome analysis revealed that S. androgynus polyploidized around 20.51 Mya and shared a γ event about 132.95 Mya. Gene function analysis suggested that the expansion of pathways related to phloem development, lignin biosynthesis, and photosynthesis tended to result in the morphological differences among species within the Phyllanthaceae family, characterized by varying ploidy levels. The high accumulation of ascorbic acid in S. androgynus was attributed to the high expression of genes associated with the L-galactose pathway and recycling pathway. Moreover, the expanded gene families of S. androgynus exhibited multiple biochemical pathways associated with its comprehensive pharmacological activity, geographic adaptation and distinctive pleasurable flavor. Altogether, our findings represent a crucial genomic asset for S. androgynus, casting light on the intricate ploidy within the Phyllanthaceae family.

Humic acids (HA) are a popular soil additive to reduce metal availability, but they have the drawbacks of reduced effectiveness over time and a significant reduction in soil pH. An alkaline humic acid fertilizer (AHAF) combining alkaline additives with HA was developed to overcome such drawbacks. A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of different AHAF application rates on the physicochemical properties, bioavailability, accumulation, and translocation of Cd and Zn heavy metals in Sauropus androgynus grown in acidic soil. Based on our results, the 100AF (100% AHAF) treatment significantly increased soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and organic matter content (OM) after one year of application. Compared with the control treatment (CK), the application of different rates of AHAF resulted in a 37.1-40.3% decrease in soil exchangeable Cd fractions (Exc-Cd) and an increase in the humic acid-bound Cd fractions (HA-Cd) Fe- and Mn-oxide-bound Cd fractions (OX-Cd), and organic matter-bound Cd fractions (OM-Cd) by 9.5-64.6%, 24.8-45.1%, and 158.8-191.2%, respectively (P < 0.05). The different AHAF treatments decreased the Res-Zn, Exc-Zn, and OM-Zn fractions by 69.6-73.0%, 7.4-23.9%, and 18.1-23.2%, respectively (P < 0.05), and increased the HA-Zn fraction by 8.4-28.1%. In the control treatment, the bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for Cd and Zn in different S. androgynus plant organs were in the following order: (Cd) Leaves > Stems > Branches > Roots > Edible branches; (Zn) Roots > Stems > Leaves > Branches > Edible branches. The transfer factors (TFs) of Cd and Zn in S. androgynus were classified as follows: TF2 > TF1 > TF3 > TF4. Thus, S. androgynus stems, and roots had a strong ability to transport Cd and Zn to the leaves. Compared with CK, the 100AF treatment significantly increased the BCFs for Zn in all plant parts (except BCFedible branches). In contrast, it significantly decreased all BCFs and TFs for Cd and the TF4 for Zn, effectively reducing Cd and Zn accumulation in the edible branches of S. androgynus. Soil pH, CEC, OM, and HA-M fraction were highly and significantly negatively correlated with Cd and Zn content in edible branches (P < 0.001). Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis revealed that the soil HA-M fraction was the key contributing factor for Zn accumulation and translocation in S. androgynus. Moreover, based on our findings, the absorption, uptake, and translocation of Cd and Zn were mainly determined by metal speciation and the pH in the soil. Moreover, the competitive antagonistic mechanisms between Zn and Cd absorption also affected their accumulation in S. androgynus. Thus, AHAF can be used as a soil amendment to sustainably improve acidic soils and effectively reduce Cd and Zn accumulation in edible branches of S. androgynus.