Electroencephalography (EEG) provides a non-invasive and cost-effective tool for supporting the assessment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the nonstationary nature of EEG produces substantial variability among signal windows recorded from the same participant, which can obscure diagnostic structure and lead to inconsistent predictions. To address this problem, we propose the Contextualized Transfer Entropy Network (CTE-Net), an end-to-end deep-learning architecture that combines global content-based contextualization with nonlinear and directed EEG connectivity estimation. CTE-Net first employs a Transformer encoder to contextualize the multichannel representations within each EEG window. The resulting signals are processed using channel-wise nonlinear temporal filters and Takens delay-coordinate embeddings. A differentiable matrix-based Transfer Entropy module, formulated using Rényi's α-entropy and a rational quadratic kernel, then estimates directed predictive information dependencies between all ordered electrode pairs. The resulting connectivity coefficients are used for ADHD-versus-control classification. The model was evaluated on a publicly available pediatric EEG dataset comprising 120 participants, equally divided between ADHD and control groups, using five fixed subject-wise folds and ten random training repetitions. At the window level, CTE-Net achieved an accuracy of 80.9±1.7%, precision of 82.7±2.1%, and sensitivity of 84.2±2.3%. At the participant level, it achieved an accuracy of 83.4% (95% CI: 78.2-88.2) and an ROC-AUC of 90.2% (95% CI: 85.1-94.6), demonstrating competitive and comparatively balanced classification performance. Beyond classification performance, the directed Transfer Entropy representation exhibited the lowest within-subject dispersion among the analyzed representation stages, with a median reduction of 38.35% relative to raw EEG. This reduction remained consistent across different PCA dimensionalities and distance definitions. These single-dataset findings support CTE-Net as a compact and interpretable methodological framework for representing directed EEG interactions while attenuating window-specific variability within individual participants.

To examine patterns of stimulant ADHD medications to adults in Ireland between 2015 and 2024, under community drug schemes. We aimed to describe changes over time across age groups, demographic characteristics, and geographic areas.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) traits vary continuously across the general population, yet whether the frontal structural correlates established in clinical ADHD extend to trait variation in nonclinical adults is unknown. Based on meta-analytic evidence, we hypothesized that orbitofrontal gray matter volumes would be negatively associated with hyperactivity traits in 2548 nonclinical Japanese adults (1488 males, 1060 females; aged 23-76 years) who underwent structural MRI and completed the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale. Regional gray matter volumes of 61 bilateral-averaged regions were tested against inattention, hyperactive motor, and hyperactive verbal trait subscales using partial correlations controlling for age and sex, with false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Five associations survived correction, all linking smaller orbital or medial frontal volumes to higher hyperactivity: medial frontal cortex with hyperactive motor and hyperactive verbal traits, and anterior orbital gyrus, lateral orbital gyrus, and orbital inferior frontal gyrus with hyperactive verbal traits (r = -0.070 to -0.078). The effect sizes were within the range reported for clinical ADHD by the ENIGMA consortium, and secondary analyses found no evidence that bilateral averaging concealed an additional hemisphere-specific association. The findings were robust across sensitivity and permutation analyses. Inattention showed no FDR-significant associations, with Bayesian and equivalence analyses supporting near-null effects at the benchmarked magnitude for most regions. Brain volumes did not improve individual-level prediction of trait scores. These findings identify small orbitofrontal and medial frontal volume associations with hyperactivity along the adult ADHD trait continuum and provide a foundational nonclinical baseline for clinical and transdiagnostic studies of ADHD traits.

Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with alterations in eating behavior, dietary patterns, and body weight regulation. Although pharmacological treatment is known to suppress appetite, its broader effects on nutrition-related outcomes remain unclear. This scoping review aimed to map the available evidence on dietary intake, eating behavior, nutritional status, growth, and bone health in individuals with ADHD receiving pharmacotherapy. Methods: A scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. PubMed and Scopus were searched from January 2010 to June 2026. Studies were eligible if they reported at least one nutrition-related outcome in medicated individuals with ADHD. Following study selection and data charting, the reported outcomes were grouped into four domains: dietary intake/eating behavior, nutritional status/metabolic biomarkers, growth/anthropometric outcomes, and bone health. Results: Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria, the majority of which were observational and conducted in pediatric or mixed-age populations. Growth and anthropometric outcomes were the most frequently investigated domain. Stimulant treatment was associated with reduced appetite; lower energy intake during active treatment periods; and transient reductions in body weight, BMI, and growth velocity. Several studies also reported changes in eating behavior, including both increased risk of disordered eating and improvements in dietary structure. Evidence regarding nutritional biomarkers, metabolic outcomes, and bone health was limited and heterogeneous. Conclusions: ADHD pharmacotherapy is associated with a broad range of nutrition-related effects that extend beyond appetite suppression alone. The available evidence suggests that nutritional outcomes are shaped by a complex interaction of biological and behavioral mechanisms. Important evidence gaps remain regarding adult populations, long-term nutritional consequences, and nutritional biomarkers.

Background and Objectives: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is increasingly recognized as a lifespan neurodevelopmental condition with far-reaching consequences for functioning and health that extend well beyond its core signs and symptoms. This narrative review synthesizes evidence on the real-world impact of ADHD across the lifespan, with a focus on academic and occupational outcomes, interpersonal and family functioning, risk-taking and behavioral outcomes, accidental and sport-related injuries, physical and medical health burdens, substance use disorders, sexual health risks, and mortality. Materials and Methods: A structured search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science supplemented by reference-list screening was conducted to identify relevant clinical studies, epidemiological studies, longitudinal investigations, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses published between 2000 and 2025. Evidence was synthesized narratively, with greater interpretive weight given to systematic reviews and meta-analyses, large epidemiological datasets, longitudinal studies, and investigations accounting for important potential confounding factors. Results: Findings indicate that ADHD is associated with substantial impairments across functional, behavioral, and health domains. However, the strength and magnitude of these associations vary and may be influenced by symptom presentation, neurocognitive characteristics, psychiatric comorbidities, lifestyle behaviors, and broader clinical and contextual factors, with evidence of bidirectional relationships for some outcomes. These findings caution against uniformly interpreting adverse outcomes as direct causal consequences of ADHD and support interconnected neurocognitive, reward/motivational, emotional, and environmental pathways linking ADHD features with downstream impairment. Clinically, the evidence underscores the importance of assessing functional impairment alongside ADHD signs and symptoms. Conclusions: Overall, ADHD is associated with substantial and heterogeneous burdens across the lifespan, highlighting the need for multidimensional assessment, further longitudinal and mechanistic research, and timely access to evidence-based interventions.

Background/Objectives: Emergency department (ED) visits for pediatric home accidents may provide an opportunity to identify children who warrant evaluation for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study primarily evaluated the feasibility of a two-step ED-based ADHD screening and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry referral pathway. A secondary exploratory objective was to compare the frequency of confirmed ADHD between children presenting with home accidents and non-injured ED controls. Methods: This prospective, two-center case-control study was conducted in two emergency departments in Denizli, Turkey, between October 2022 and June 2023. Children aged 5-11 years were enrolled as home-accident cases or non-injured controls. Parents or guardians completed the Turkish-validated Turgay DSM-IV Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale (DDDRS). Screen-positive children and those with prior documented ADHD were referred for DSM-5-based diagnostic confirmation or record verification by Child and Adolescent Psychiatry specialists blinded to group allocation. Feasibility outcomes included completion of ED screening, referral threshold positivity, and attendance at specialist assessment. Results: The study included 139 home-accident cases and 139 controls. Among 267 children eligible for ED screening, all completed the DDDRS. Forty-nine children (18.4%) met the referral threshold, and 40 of 49 (81.6%) attended the Child and Adolescent Psychiatry assessment. Overall, ADHD was confirmed in 21 cases (15.1%) and 9 controls (6.5%) (unadjusted odds ratio [OR], 2.57; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.13-5.83; p = 0.020). In an exploratory multivariable logistic regression model adjusted for sex, age, and school grade, confirmed ADHD remained associated with home-accident case status (adjusted OR, 2.45; 95% CI, 1.06-5.65; p = 0.035). However, a sensitivity analysis restricted to children without prior treated ADHD showed a non-significant difference in newly diagnosed ADHD (12/130 vs. 7/137; OR, 1.89; 95% CI, 0.72-4.96; p = 0.190). Conclusions: A two-step ED screening and specialist referral pathway for ADHD after pediatric home-accident presentation was operationally feasible in this two-center sample. The higher overall frequency of confirmed ADHD among home-accident cases should be interpreted as a secondary exploratory finding because it was partly influenced by imbalance in pre-existing ADHD and was not confirmed in the newly diagnosed-only analysis. Larger studies with center-level data, broader confounder measurement, and longitudinal follow-up are needed.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are common psychiatric disorders that may be differentiated by neurocognitive measures and electrocortical indices of performance monitoring. Increased reaction time variability (RTV) is a consistent finding in studies of ADHD. The error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) are components of the event-related potential (ERP) following an error that are potential mechanistic biomarkers for both disorders. The correct response negativity (CRN) and correct positivity (Pc) are components of the ERP following a correct response that are less well understood. The study examined RTV, accuracy, and neural indices of error monitoring using an Eriksen flanker task in 84 ADHD cases, 90 OCD cases, and 136 matched healthy controls (HC) ages 8 to 18 years. Both correct and error trial RTV were significantly increased in ADHD cases compared to HC, whereas flanker task accuracy was significantly decreased in OCD cases relative to HC. Compared to HC, CRN amplitude was significantly increased, and Pe amplitude was significantly decreased in ADHD cases. ERN amplitude was significantly increased in OCD cases compared to HC. Compared to HC, the difference between Pe and Pc amplitudes was significantly decreased in both ADHD and OCD cases, which may reflect defects in the post-decisional evidence accumulation process that impair decision accuracy or subsequent behavioral adjustments in those disorders. In two multiple linear regression analyses, correct trial CVRT had significant associations with age, ADHD behaviors, and CRN, Pe, and Pc amplitudes. The study provides new evidence of increased RTV in ADHD, differential alterations in error-related and correct-related brain activity in ADHD and OCD, and a robust association between RTV and the error monitoring neural system.