Homonymous hemianopia (HH) is a visual field defect involving either two right or the two left halves of the visual field of both eye. It results from the damage of the visual pathway in its suprachiasmatic part. The causes of HH include stroke, brain tumors, head injuries, neurosurgical procedures, multiple sclerosis and miscellaneous conditions. HH result in a severe visual impairment and affect a variety of cognitive visual functions. Patients with HH frequently have difficulties with reading and scanning scenes in sufficiently rapid fashion to make sense of things as a whole. They stumble, fall or knock objects in their surroundings, since they cannot see them and they are frequent surprised that somebody or something suddenly appeared in their visual field. The prognosis of visual field deficit recovery is highly variable and depends on the cause and severity of brain nd optic pathway injury. The fundamental method in the management of HH patients is rehabilitation. Rehabilitation techniques used in HH include three groups of methods: optical therapies, eye movement-based therapies, and visual field restitution therapies.

In Part II the clinical aspects of refractive errors such as hyperopia, myopia, astigmatism, anisometropia, aphakia and unilateral pseudophakia have been described along with strabismus and prism and spectacle correction allowing additionally proper visual alignment.

In Part I the problems associated with refraction, accommodation and convergence and their role in proper eye position/visual alignment of the eyes as well as convergent, divergent and vertical alignment of the eyes have been described.

Author describe actual knowledge about diabetes epidemiology and ocular complications in course of diabetes. More information about innovation diabetic macular edema treatment is done.

Description of a rare case of bilateral fungal endophthalmitis in a patient and the associated diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties.Patient 28 years old was diagnosed because of bilateral deterioration in endophthalmitis. Therefore, the diagnostic possibilities were run down and material taken from the vitreous chamber were handed to determine the Candida spp. antigen using Elisa test, standardized for serum and cerebrospinal fluid. Combination therapy including drugs and surgery were performed.Ophthalmoscopy OP/OL showed the presence of "clusters of cotton" in vitreous body characteristic for ocular candidosis. Targeted treatment for Candida spp. with voriconazole were based on a very high concentration of mannan antigen in the resulting of the test. The final diagnosis was established after microbiological examination of material taken during vitrectomy.High level of mannan antigen Candida spp 4259.83 in vitreous body may indicate a fungal endophthalmitis. fungal endophthalmitis, ocular candidosis, endogenic infection of the eye.

Toxic optic neuropathies are not frequently encountered in routine practice, however, they present a challenge both in terms of diagnosis and treatment. The aim of this paper is to present an unusual case of ethyl alcohol poisoning causing bilateral toxic optic neuropathy with loss of vision.

Homonymous hemianopia (HH) is a visual field defect characterized by the involvement of two right or left halves of the visual field in both eyes. Patients with HH complain of difficulties with reading and scanning scenes in sufficiently rapid fashion to make sense of things as a whole. Some of these patients are not aware of their visual field defect. We report two cases of left-sided hemianopia in which visual field defects were detected "quite" accidentally. In the case of the first patient, revealing HH facilitated the detection of brain tumor and its treatment. In the case of the other patient, identifying HH, which was caused by a head injury, and making the patient aware of this fact, prevented potential harmful consequences associated with driving a car by a person with severe deficits in cognitive visual functions. homonymous hemianopia, brain tumor, head trauma.

To evaluate long-term outcome of frontalis suspension using autogenous fascia lata (frontalis suspension - FS) which is indicated in the treatment of severe blepharoptosis with minimal levator function.Fourty one patients (23 females, 18 males, aged 6-79 years, mean 41.4 years) who underwent FS between 1999 and 2009 were evaluated. Mean follow-up was 55 months. Functional outcome was measured on digital photographs by analysis of an upper eyelid margin position below the superior limbus. Following criteria were used: very good (< 3 mm), good (3-5 mm), unsatisfactory (> 5 mm). Aesthetic outcome was assessed in terms of lid contour, symmetry of lid height and lid crease. Patient satisfaction and life quality improvement were evaluated in the survey.Functional outcome was very good in 36%, good in 59.3%, unsatisfactory in 4.7%. Recurrence occured in 4.6% and complications in 10.9% (lagophthalmos--6.2%, entropion--4.7%). Very good aesthetic outcome regarding lid contour, symmetry of lid height and lid crease was achieved in 76.6%, 53.6% and 51.6%, respectively. Patient satisfaction and life quality improvement was also very high. There were only 1.6% unsatisfied patients.FS is an efficient method in treatment of severe blepharoptosis.

To measure central macular thickness change after Nd: YAG capsulotomy using optical coherence tomography (OCT).55 patients (43 females and 12 males), mean age 65.1 +/- 13.9 years (range 21-87) who underwent Nd: YAG capsulotomy for posterior capsule opacification. Patients were examined preoperatively and one day, one week, one month, three months and six months after Nd: YAG capsulotomy. Central retinal thickness was measured by Stratus IV OCT Optical Coherence Tomography from Carl Zeiss Meditec, Inc. using "fast macular thickness" map protocol. All patients underwent ophthalmic examination including best-corrected visual acuity, fundus examination and intraocular pressure measurement.The initial median and range of the central retinal thickness was 212 microm (168-228), after one day 207 microm (168-232), after one week 207 microm (166-241), after one month 207 microm (163-252), after 3 months 207 microm (171-242), and 210 microm (170-235) 6 months after treatment. Proportional changes of the central retinal thickness was after one day -0.5 (-13.3 to 5.6), after one week 0.5 (-11.6 to 8.1), after one month -0.4 (-8.3 to 14.5), after 3 months 0.5 (-8.7 to 10.0) and 6 months after capsulotomy 0.5 (-5.8 to 7.7). There was no statistically significant change of the central macular thickness in any time point. Cystoid macular edema was observed in three patients 9.0 and 14 weeks after treatment. No other complications were noticed.Laser capsulotomy should be considered as a safe procedure for the macula. Optical coherence tomography is a useful diagnostic method that can be used in qualification and monitoring of patients undergoing Nd: YAG capsulotomy.

To evaluate foveal function, retinal circulation and foveal thickness before and after intravitreal ranibizumab injections in eyes with wet type of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).The study group consisted of 21 eyes (20 patients) with choroidal neovascularisation (CNV) due to AMD. Inclusion criteria were based on fluorescein angiography (FA) and distance best corrected visual acuity (DBCVA)--log MAR scale. In each eye, 3 consecutive injections of ranibizumab every 4 weeks were administered and then individual course for re-injections according to DBCVA and optical coherence tomography (OCT) up to 12 months was applied. At baseline, 3, 6 and 12 months follow-up, the following tests were performed: DBCVA, multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) and OCT. Additionally, FA was carried out before the treatment, 3 and 12 months from the baseline.At baseline, FA revealed mainly minimally occult choroidal neovascularisation--57% (12/21) of eyes. At 3 months choroidal neovascularisation diameter was stable; no leakage from active choroidal neovascularisation was seen in 76% (16/21) of eyes. After 12 months follow-up, increase in choroidal neovascularisation diameter was seen in 43% (9/21) of eyes and no leakage in 57% (12/21) of cases. The mean DBCVA significantly improved only after 3 months (p < 0.02). Significant decrease of mean foveal thickness was observed in each follow-ups (p < 0.01). The mfERG data from the macular region remained stable or improved slightly in some cases.In our series of patients with the wet type of AMD after intravitreal injections of ranibizumab in 12 months follow-up, the reduction of foveal thickness was noted while DBCVA and the bioelectrical function from the macular region measured by the mfERG remained stable.