Ceratonia siliqua L. (C. siliqua), commonly known as the carob tree, is an evergreen species of the Fabaceae family native to the Mediterranean basin and increasingly cultivated worldwide. Traditionally valued as animal feed and a natural sweetener, it has recently gained recognition as a multifunctional plant resource with nutritional, pharmaceutical, and industrial relevance. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the botany, phytochemistry, nutritional profile, bioactivity, and traditional uses of C. siliqua, and discusses its economic and industrial significance. Emphasis is placed on its rich content of polyphenols, flavonoids, dietary fiber, proteins, and essential minerals, which have been associated with antioxidant, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, and cardiometabolic-related activities. Beyond its nutritional potential, carob is increasingly used in food processing, functional foods, and pharmaceutical formulations, with locust bean gum as a key industrial derivative. Despite its long history, recent advances highlight new applications and the need for systematic quality control, valorization of genetic resources, and sustainable exploitation strategies. Overall, this review provides an integrative perspective that bridges traditional knowledge with modern scientific findings, aiming to guide future research and support broader utilization of carob as a natural bioresource in health, nutrition, and industry.

Background and Objectives: In this investigation, the mineral profile, antioxidant properties, and phenolic composition of tree gum exudates harvested from sour cherry (Prunus cerasus), mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb), and cherry (Prunus avium) were assessed, together with their in vivo diuretic efficacy in a Wistar albino rat model. Materials and Methods: Spectrophotometric quantification of total flavonoids and phenolics relied on aluminum nitrate and Folin-Ciocalteu reagents, respectively. Antioxidant potential was evaluated through radical scavenging tests, copper reduction capacity, and ferric reducing power, whereas ICP-MS was employed for elemental profiling. Rats were assigned to five groups: Control (distilled water), Furosemide (standard drug), PCRWE (group treated with P. cerasus tree gum exudate), PMRWE (group treated with P. mahaleb tree gum exudate), and PARWE (group treated with P. avium tree gum exudate). Urine samples collected at 5 and 24 h post administration were assessed for volume and Na[+], K[+], and Cl[-] electrolyte concentrations to evaluate natriuretic and carbonic anhydrase activities. Results: Tree gum exudates contained rich mineral profiles, high phenolic and flavonoid levels, and strong antioxidant capacities. Cherry and mahaleb tree gum exudates showed low short-term and moderate long-term diuretic activity. In contrast, sour cherry tree gum exudate exhibited moderate short-term and high long-term diuretic activity. Furthermore, tree gum exudates significantly enhanced sodium, and potassium ion excretion compared to furosemide, demonstrating notable natriuretic and carbonic anhydrase activities. Conclusions: Tree gum exudates represent promising bioactive ingredients, antioxidants, or natural preservatives for food products. Specifically, sour cherry tree gum exudate displays significant diuretic and natriuretic potential, positioning it as a promising natural therapeutic agent for fluid balance management. Further research is required to isolate the active compounds and elucidate their specific mechanism on renal function.

Depending on their composition, exudates oozing from trees can support or inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Resins released by conifers have a strong antimicrobial effect. Sugar-rich saps are usually colonised by diverse microorganisms including yeasts. In this study, the yeasts associated with the polysaccharide-containing gums of cherry trees were examined. 227 strains were isolated from gums of 53 abandoned road-side and orchard sour cherry trees in 20 locations. 12 ascomycetous and 19 basidiomycetous species were found among the isolates. All grew very poorly on laboratory media containing gum as the only source of nutrients. The high taxonomic diversity and poor growth of the isolates on gum-based media indicate that the cherry-tree gum is unlikely to be permanently colonised by a characteristic yeast community. Strains of 16 species showed antifungal antagonism. The Metschnikowia pulcherrima isolates killed the cells of the test organisms by releasing pulcherriminic acid. These isolates showed high intragenomic barcode (D1/D2 domain and ITS) diversity due to single-nucleotide dimorphism (ambiguous nucleotides) in many sites. In the D1/D2 domain, the ambiguous sites were concentrated in four segments that correspond to the back-folding strands of the stems of the D1 and D2 loops of the secondary structure of the LSU rRNA.

Anoplophora glabripennis is a destructive forest pest. Elaeagnus angustifolia attracts A. glabripennis for feeding and oviposition, but its gum encapsulates and kills the eggs, functioning as a dead-end trap tree. However, the olfactory mechanisms by which A. glabripennis recognizes E. angustifolia volatiles remain unclear. In this study, we analyzed the antennal transcriptome of female adult A. glabripennis exposed to E. angustifolia volatiles. Ten OBP genes were significantly up-regulated in response to the volatiles, including six Classic OBPs and four Minus-C OBPs (log2 fold changes: 1.02-3.01). qRT-PCR showed AglaOBP1/2/3 were highly and specifically expressed in the antennae, suggesting key olfactory roles. Static molecular docking showed that all three OBPs bound 22 E. angustifolia volatiles, each displaying the highest affinity for (+)-Longifolene, with AglaOBP1 exhibiting the strongest binding. Nevertheless, 200 ns MD simulations revealed a shift: the AglaOBP3-(+)-Longifolene complex displayed the greatest structural stability, not AglaOBP1. MM/PBSA corrected the initial docking screen and confirmed that AglaOBP3 had the strongest thermodynamic binding affinity for (+)-Longifolene (ΔGbind = -30.94 ± 2.57 kcal·mol-1). This study provides novel molecular insights into the olfactory recognition of E. angustifolia volatiles in A. glabripennis, laying a foundation for future functional validation and sustainable pest management.

Pistacia lentiscus L., commonly known as the mastic tree, is a Mediterranean plant recognised for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Therefore, extensive research has focused on the chemical composition and biological activities of its gum, bark, leaves, and flowers. The chemical content of P. lentiscus is influenced by geographical location and soil conditions. In this study, ethyl acetate and hexane extracts of the bark and gum of Pistacia lentiscus L. collected from Çeşme (İzmir, Türkiye) were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and their antioxidant activities were evaluated. Total antioxidant capacity, radical scavenging activity, and total phenolic content of the extracts and branch distillates were determined using FRAP, CUPRAC, DPPH, and Folin-Ciocalteu assays. The findings indicate that Pistacia lentiscus samples from the Çeşme region display antioxidant activities comparable to those reported in previous studies.

Ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) encounter ash after wildfires or controlled burns-either directly or via wildlife that bathe in ash. Despite its use to control ectoparasites in traditional ethnoveterinary practices, the effects of plant-derived ash remain unstudied. We evaluated ash from three tree species that grow in California-coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl.; Cupressaceae), California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arn.) Nutt.; Lauraceae), and non-native Tasmanian blue gum eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.; Myrtaceae)-on survival and behavior of four ixodid tick species: Ixodes pacificus Cooley & Kohls (larvae, adult females), Dermacentor occidentalis Marx (larvae, adults), D. similis Lado, Glon & Klompen (adults), and D. albipictus Packard (larvae). Treatments included ash, two commercial acaricidal dusts (diatomaceous earth and kaolin clay), and a negative control. Eucalyptus ash significantly reduced survival in I. pacificus larvae and females and D. occidentalis larvae, with effects comparable to positive controls. Bay ash showed moderate lethality in I. pacificus females and D. occidentalis larvae. Redwood ash had strong effects only on D. albipictus larvae. Dermacentor species showed low overall susceptibility; larvae were more affected than adults, which showed no lethal effects. Our findings suggest that ash type, tick species, and life stage influence outcomes. This is the first laboratory study to show the effects of plant ash on ticks, supporting ash as a potential alternative for tick control and highlighting fire's indirect role in tickborne disease dynamics.

Two endophytic actinobacteria of the genus Streptomyces-EKL1.1T and EKS8.28T-were isolated from the surface-sterilized leaf and twig of a red gum tree (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.) grown in highly saline soil, as reported in a previous study. These strains were aerobic and feature well-developed substrate mycelia and aerial mycelia with spiral spore chains. Strains EKL1.1T and EKS8.28T shared the highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with Streptomyces mexicanus NRRL B-24196T (99.2%) and Streptomyces glomeratus LMG 19903T (99.0%), respectively. The comparative genome study of strain EKL1.1T and its closest type strain, S. mexicanus NRRL B-24196T, showed the highest dDDH, ANIb, and ANIm values of 31.8, 85.3, and 88.5%, respectively. The comparative genome study of strain EKS8.28T and its closest type strain, Streptomyces cynarae HUAS 13-4T, had the highest dDDH, ANIb, and ANIm values of 41.8, 89.6, and 91.4%, respectively. The genotypic and phenotypic properties of strains EKL1.1T and EKS8.28T distinguished these two strains from the closely related species with validly published names. The name proposed for the new species of strain EKL1.1T is Streptomyces kalasinensis (= NRRL B-65753T = TBRC 19936T). The name proposed for the novel species of strain EKS8.28T is Streptomyces phytorum (= NRRL B-65754T = TBRC 19937T). Strain EKL1.1T could only inhibit one fungus, Cladosporium sp. LB1, moderately (35%). Strain EKS8.28T could inhibit Fusarium sp. RE1 (71.1%), Curvularia sp. LB12 (62.2%), and Cladosporium sp. LB1 (50%). Strains EKL1.1T and EKS8.28T could produce indole acetic acid (IAA) and solubilize phosphate. The optimum spore inoculum of strains EKL1.1T and EKS8.28T to promote seedling growth parameters of eucalyptus was 107 and 108 spores/mL, respectively. Strains EKL1.1T and EKS8.28T facilitated the development of eucalyptus seedlings under saline conditions. They also enhanced the growth of eucalyptus seedlings in planta by augmenting shoot length and fresh weight. Genome mining of these strains reveals their in vitro and in planta characteristics, including biosynthetic gene clusters of bioactive compounds and several genes associated with plant growth enhancement under stressful conditions. They can be formulated as inoculants to improve eucalyptus plantations for sustainable agriculture in the future.

Senegalia senegal produces a hydrocolloid known as gum arabic, which is rich in arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) and of high economic importance. Despite its economic value, the anatomical origin and formation mechanisms of gum arabic remain poorly understood. In this study, we combined histological, histochemical, and immunolocalization techniques to investigate the spatial, cellular, and temporal dynamics of gum formation in S. senegal. We show that gum pockets are formed exclusively in the inner secondary phloem, between phloem rays, and are initiated by companion cells. Using Yariv reagent and JIM4 antibody, we identified AGP accumulation as an early hallmark of pocket initiation. Gum pocket development occurs via a schizogenous process, involving progressive cell wall separation at the middle lamella, without signs of cell lysis. We also demonstrate that gum pocket formation is seasonally regulated, peaking during the dry season and followed by a gradual resorption phase. The decline in AGP signal and the formation of new phloem tissues suggest a possible metabolic recycling of non-exuded gum to fuel cambial reactivation. Importantly, the surface area of gum pockets correlates with the amount of gum harvested, offering a potential anatomical proxy for selecting high-yielding trees. Our findings redefine the developmental and physiological framework of gum arabic production and provide new perspectives for genetic improvement and sustainable resource management in Sahelian ecosystems.

Gum Arabic (GA), a natural polysaccharide exudate from Acacia trees of the Fabaceae family, has been receiving increasing attention as a bio-functional feed ingredient in the monogastric animal diet. Due to its rich content of indigestible soluble fibre (80-85%), GA brings a vast range of physiological effects such as alteration in gut microbiota, improvement in mucosal immunity, antioxidant capacity, and aid in metabolic homeostasis. The objective of this review is to summarize recent research findings on dietary GA supplementation for poultry and rabbits, focusing on growth performance, immune response, carcass characteristics, gut health, and stress resistance (heat and high stocking density). In broilers, addition of GA at 0.12-6.0% (1.2-60 g/kg) to the diet enhanced feed conversion and growth, with the maximum response occurring at 0.5-2.0% (5-20 g/kg). Laying hens responded to 1.0-7.0% GA (10-70 g/kg) with a significant improvement in egg mass and body condition at 2.5-5.0% (25-50 g/kg). In rabbits, the performance of growing rabbits was improved at 1.0 to 2.0 g/kg of GA, with the best level at 2.0 g/kg diet. In rabbit does, addition of 0.5-1.5% GA (5 to 15 g/kg) improved the milk yield and decreased kit mortality. It seems that the bioactivity of GA relates to prebiotic fermentation, SCFA production, epithelial barrier enhancement, and anti-inflammatory activity. These results place GA as a potential natural candidate for enhancing animal welfare, productivity, and heat tolerance in the tropical production systems.

The human skin, a dynamic defense shield for intricate organs, must heal promptly in the event of injury to safeguard delicate internal organs from infection and environmental stress. The infiltration of microbes into open wounds may exacerbate complications and prolong the healing process. Oral, intravenous, or topical administration of antibiotics are commonly practiced conventional methods, which generally face challenges like optimal dosage, delivery at site of infection, repeated administration, and antibiotic. Therefore, three dimensional (3D) printed scaffolds with sustained degradation kinetics emerged as a potential candidate for prolonged localized delivery of natural antibiotics. Herein, the present study poses Pluronic copolymer/Xanthan/Tea tree oil (PCP/Xn/TT) based 3D printed scaffold for controlled degradation and sustained release of TT (66 ± 2% in 7 days). The released amount of TT at regular intervals in physiological medium (in-vitro) provided optimal bactericidal effect against E. coli and S. aureus, till the 7th day of incubation. The controlled porous and crosslinked PCP/Xn network (confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscopy and Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy) was responsible for swelling behaviour and optimal contact angle of 49 ± 3°. The fabricated scaffold was antioxidant, thus enhancing the healing process, confirmed by enhanced release of vascular endothelial growth factor (287 ± 13 pg/mL), collagen type I (19.4 ± 0.5 ng/mL), and glutathione peroxidase I (15.6 ± 0.4 ng/mL). The interaction of TT's constituents with pre-stated biomarkers was further validated by in-silico molecular docking. Herein, the developed PCP/Xn/TT scaffolds being bactericidal and fibrogenic, unveils its prospect for advanced wound care solution.

Almond cultivation in southwestern Iran, accounting for over 30% of the national production, is currently threatened by an emerging bacterial disease. During 2023-2025, a comprehensive survey was conducted across 11 districts in Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari and Isfahan provinces to investigate the distribution and etiology of this condition. Affected trees exhibited foamy bacterial canker, characterized by the profuse exudation of viscous, amber-colored gum containing numerous air bubbles from bark cracks and pruning wounds. Symptoms typically emerged in late spring and progressed rapidly during high summer temperatures, leading to sunken necrotic lesions, and extensive internal woody discoloration. Infected trees often showed canopy dieback and succumbed to the disease within two to three years. From 259 symptomatic samples, a Gram-negative bacterium was consistently isolated (yielding 118 isolates) and identified as Lonsdalea britannica based on phenotypic traits and multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) of the 16S rRNA, gyrB, and flhD genes. Pathogenicity was confirmed through detached shoot assays on almond cultivars 'Ferragnès' and 'Mamaee' and greenhouse inoculations on seedlings, fulfilling Koch's postulates. This study constitutes the first confirmed report worldwide of L. britannica causing foamy bacterial canker on almond, highlighting a significant biosecurity threat to the almond industry.

The growing global water crisis has been exacerbated by water pollution, with dye effluent causing a significant threat to the ecosystem and public health. In this study, we developed a straightforward and sustainable method for producing a crosslinked network material (RCTG-cl-GMA-Cys), using Red-silk cotton tree gum (Bombax ceiba) (RCTG), Glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) and Cysteine (Cys), offering a cost-effective solution for water treatment. The synthesis is done in two steps with initial crosslinking of RCTG and GMA, followed by ring opening with cysteine in the second step. The physical and chemical properties of the RCTG-cl-GMA-Cys have been examined using various analytical techniques. Further RCTG-cl-GMA-Cys material was evaluated for the best adsorbed Crystal violet (CV) dye. The effect of time, temperature, pH, and dye concentration on dye removal efficiency was also evaluated. The isotherm modelling of the adsorption data across was conducted via non-linear regression analysis. Furthermore, it showed a removal efficiency of 93.36%, and the dye adsorption isotherm was markedly described by the Langmuir model, exhibiting a maximum adsorption capacity (qm) of 145.49 mg g[-1] for CV dye. The kinetic modelling revealed that CV adsorption closely adhered to the pseudo-second order equation (R[2] = 0.99141), reflecting a chemisorption mechanism. Thermodynamic analysis revealed negative ΔG° values, a positive ΔH° (60.05197 kJ mol[-1]) and an entropy increase (ΔS°) of 209.8708 J mol[-1] K[-1], confirming that the CV adsorption is thermodynamically favourable and spontaneous. Notably, RCTG-cl-GMA-Cys adsorbent exhibited excellent reusability, maintaining a removal efficiency of 76.80% even after ten consecutive adsorption-desorption cycles.

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is indigenous to the Mediterranean basin, noted for its adaptability to biotic and abiotic stresses and its long history of use in traditional agroforestry systems. This review critically analyzes the phytochemical composition of carob, its traditional medicinal uses, and its contemporary applications in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and agri-food sectors. Particular attention is placed on the valorization of carob pods, seeds, and leaves, which are transformed into high-value products, including locust bean gum and polyphenol-rich extracts. Recent studies indicate that carob is a rich source of bioactive compounds, particularly phenolic acids and flavonoids such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, catechins, quercetin, and luteolin. These compounds have primarily been investigated in vitro and in vivo, where they exhibited antioxidant, antimicrobial, and potential cardioprotective and gastrointestinal-related effects. This chemical diversity underscores their potential as a prime substitute for future nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. The review further addresses the ecological and socio-economic relevance of carob cultivation, particularly in countries such as Algeria, where reforestation and agro-industrial valorization remain underexploited despite their significant economic potential. Overall, this work highlights the need for a comprehensive and critical evaluation of carob-derived bioactive compounds and encourages further well-designed studies, especially clinical investigations, to better substantiate their health-related benefits while supporting sustainable use of this multipurpose species.

The processing of cashew apple in Brazil, particularly in the Northeast region, generates tons of by-products. This scenario highlights a significant waste of material with bioactive potential. In addition to these, the cashew tree also produces cashew gum, a natural exudate with important technological applications. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of partial and total fat replacement with cashew tree gum and agro-industrial residue from the cashew apple on the physicochemical, physical, microscopic, and sensory analysis of sponge cakes. To this end, three formulations were developed: A control formulation (F0), a formulation with 50% fat replacement (F50), and a formulation with 100% fat replacement (F100). In the raw batter, F50 and F100 showed significant differences compared to F0 in specific gravity (F0: 0.91 ± 0.01; F50: 1.22 ± 0.00; F100: 0.93 ± 0.04), viscosity (F0: 35397 ± 0.00 mPas; F50: 18415 ± 0.00 mPas; F100: 10782 ± 0.00 mPas), total bubble area (F0: 140.35 ± 0.00%; F50: 126.32 ± 0.00%; F100: 105.26 ± 0.00%), and cell density (F0: 2.91 ± 0.00 cells/cm2; F50: 13.84 ± 0.00 cells/cm2; F100: 33.56 ± 0.00 cells/cm2;) (p < 0.05). For baked cakes, only the specific volume of F0 (1.11 ± 0.12 mL g- 1) and F100 (0.63 ± 0.19 mL g- 1) differed significantly (p < 0.05). Sensory analysis indicated comparable acceptance and purchase intention between F0 and F50 for all attributes except color (F0: 8.17 ± 0.93; F50: 7.42 ± 1.25). F100 differed significantly in all attributes, but scores remained within the "Like" region of the hedonic scale, which goes up to 7 points. Based on the results, the formulations demonstrate technological potential, representing a functional and innovative food application. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This paper highlights the use of cashew by-product and cashew gum as fat substitutes in sponge cakes, without affecting texture or sensory acceptance. It offers an innovative option for the food market focused on healthier, lower-fat products.